ORIGIN OF COUNSELLING

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Historical and Professional
Foundations of Counseling
PART I
3
Chapter 1 History of and Trends in Counseling
Chapter 2 Personal and Professional Aspects
of Counseling
Chapter 3 Ethical and Legal Aspects of Counseling
Chapter 4 Counseling in a Multicultural Society
Chapter 5 Counseling with Diverse Populations
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1 History of and Trends in Counseling
There is a quietness that comes
in the awareness of presenting names
and recalling places
in the history of persons
who come seeking help.
Confusion and direction are a part of the process
where in trying to sort out tracks
that parallel into life
a person’s past is traveled.
Counseling is a complex riddle
where the mind’s lines are joined
with scrambling and precision
to make sense out of nonsense,
a tedious process
like piecing fragments of a puzzle together
until a picture is formed.
Reprinted from “In the Midst of the Puzzles and Counseling Journey,” by S. T.
Gladding, 1978, Personnel and Guidance Journal, 57, p. 148. © S. T. Gladding.
4
Chapter Overview
From reading this chapter
you will learn about
■ The consensus definition
of counseling adopted
by 29 diverse counseling
associations
■ The history of counseling
and important events and
people that have shaped the
profession during different
decades
■ Current trends in
counseling and where the
profession of counseling is
headed
As you read consider
■ What you believe most
people think counseling is
and how that differs from
what it is
■ How world events,
governments, and strong
personalities shape
a profession such as
counseling
■ What trends you see on
the horizon that you think
may influence the future
of counseling including
developing needs in
humanity
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A profession is distinguished by having
• a specific body of knowledge,
• accredited training programs,
• a professional organization of peers,
• credentialing of practitioners such as licensure,
• a code of ethics,
• legal recognition, and
• other standards of excellence (Myers & Sweeney, 2001).
Counseling meets all the standards for a profession and has done so for a significant period
of time. It is unique from, as well as connected with, other mental health disciplines by both
its emphases and at times its history. Counseling emphasizes growth as well as remediation
over the course of a life span in various areas of life: childhood, adolescence, adulthood,
and older adulthood. Counselors within the counseling profession specialize in helping
individuals, couples, groups, families, and social systems that are experiencing situational,
developmental, and long- or short-term problems. Counseling’s focus on development,
prevention, wellness, and treatment makes it attractive to those seeking healthy life-stage
transitions and productive lives.
Counseling has not always been an encompassing and comprehensive profession. It has
evolved over the years from diverse disciplines “including but not limited to anthropology,
education, ethics, history, law, medical sciences, philosophy, psychology, and sociology”
(Smith, 2001, p. 570). Some people associate counseling with educational institutions or equate
the word “guidance” with counseling because they are unaware of counseling’s evolution. As a
consequence, outdated ideas linger in their minds in contrast to reality. They misunderstand the
essence of the profession and those who work in it. Even among counselors themselves, those
who fail to keep up in their professional development may become confused as to exactly what
counseling is, where it has been, and how it is moving forward. As C. H. Patterson, a pioneer in
counseling, once observed, some writers in counseling journals seem “ignorant of the history of
the counseling profession . . . [and thus] go over the same ground covered in publications of the
1950s and 1960s” (Goodyear & Watkins, 1983, p. 594).
Therefore, it is important to examine the history of counseling because a counselor who
is informed about the development and transformation of the profession is likely to have a
strong professional identity and subsequently make significant contributions to the field.
By understanding counseling’s past, you may better appreciate present and future trends of
the profession.
Visit the site (www.MyCounselingLab.com) for Counseling: A
Comprehensive Profession, Seventh Edition to enhance your understanding of chapter
concepts.
You’ll have the opportunity to practice your skills through video- and case-based
Assignments and Activities as well as Building Counseling Skills units and to prepare for
your certification exam with Practice for Certification quizzes.
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6 Part I • Historical and Professional Foundations of Counseling
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Definition of Counseling
There have always been “counselors”—people who listen to others and help them resolve
difficulties—
but the word “counselor” has been misused over the years by connecting it
with descriptive
adjectives to promote products. Thus, one hears of carpet counselors, color
coordination
counselors, pest control counselors, financial counselors, camp counselors, and so
on. These counselors are mostly glorified salespersons, advice givers, and supervisors of children
or services. They are to professional counseling what furniture doctors are to medicine.
Counseling as a profession grew out of the progressive guidance movement of the early
1900s. Its emphasis was on prevention and purposefulness—on helping individuals of all ages
and stages avoid making bad choices in life while finding meaning, direction, and fulfillment
in what they did. Today professional counseling encompasses within its practice clinicians who
still focus on the avoidance of problems and the promotion of growth, but the profession is much
more than that. The focus on wellness, development, mindfulness, meaningfulness, and remediation
of mental disorders is the hallmark of counseling for individuals, groups, couples, and families
across the life span. To understand what counseling is now, it is important first to understand
the history of the profession and how counseling is similar to and different from concepts such
as guidance and psychotherapy.
Guidance
Guidance focuses on helping people make important choices that affect their lives, such as
choosing a preferred lifestyle. Although the decision-making aspect of guidance has long played
an important role in the counseling process, the concept itself, as a word in counseling, “has gone
the way of ‘consumption’ in medicine” (Tyler, 1986, p. 153). It has more historical significance
than present-day usage. Nevertheless, it sometimes distinguishes a way of helping that differs
from the more encompassing word “counseling.”
One distinction between guidance and counseling is that guidance centers on helping individuals
choose what they value most, whereas counseling helps them make changes. Much of the
early work in guidance occurred in schools and career centers where an adult would help a student
make decisions, such as deciding on a course of study or a vocation. That relationship was between
unequals and was beneficial in helping the less experienced person find direction in life. Similarly,
children have long received “guidance” from parents, religious leaders, and coaches. In the process
they have gained an understanding of themselves and their world. This type of guidance will never
become passé. No matter what the age or stage of life, a person often needs help in making choices.
But guidance is only one part of the overall services provided by professional counseling.
Psychotherapy
Traditionally, psychotherapy (or therapy) has focused on serious problems associated with
intrapsychic,
internal, and personal issues and conflicts. It has dealt with the “recovery of
PERSONAL REFLECTION
What do you know about your family and personal history that has helped you in your life? Why do
you find this type of information valuable? What parallels do you see between knowing your family
history and the history of counseling?
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adequacy”
(Casey, 1996, p. 175). As such, psychotherapy, especially analytically based therapy,
has emphasized (a) the past more than the present, (b) insight more than change, (c) the detachment
of the therapist, and (d) the therapist’s role as an expert. In addition, psychotherapy has historically
involved
a long-term relationship (20 to 40 sessions over a period of 6 months to 2 years) that concentrated
on reconstructive change as opposed to a more short-term relationship
(8 to 12 sessions
spread over a period of less than 6 months). Psychotherapy has also been more of a process associated
with inpatient settings—some of which are residential, such as mental hospitals—as opposed
to outpatient settings—some of which are nonresidential, such as community
agencies.
However, in more modern times, the distinction between psychotherapy and counseling
has blurred, and professionals who provide clinical services often determine whether clients
receive counseling or psychotherapy. Some counseling theories are commonly referred to as
therapies as well and can be used in multiple settings. Therefore, the similarities in the counseling
and psychotherapy processes often overlap.
Counseling
The term counseling has eluded definition for years. However, in 2010, 29 counseling
associations
including the American Counseling Association (ACA) and all but two of its
19 divisions, along with the American Association of State Counseling Boards (AASCB), the
Council for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP),
the National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC), the Council of Rehabilitation Education
(CORE), the Commission of Rehabilitation Counselor Certification (CRCC), and the Chi
Sigma Iota (counseling honor society international) accepted a consensus definition of counseling.
According to the 20/20: A Vision for the Future of Counseling group, counseling is
defined as follows:
“Counseling is a professional relationship that empowers diverse individuals, families,
and groups to accomplish mental health, wellness, education, and career goals” (www
.counseling.org/20-20/index.aspx).
This definition contains a number of implicit and explicit points that are important for
counselors as well as consumers to realize.
• Counseling deals with wellness, personal growth, career, education, and empowerment
concerns. In other words, counselors work in areas that involve a plethora of issues
including
those that are personal and those that are interpersonal. These areas include concerns
related to finding meaning, adjustment, and fulfillment in mental and physical health,
and the achievement of goals in such settings as work and school. Counselors are concerned
with social justice and advocate for the oppressed and powerless as a part of the process.
• Counseling is conducted with persons individually, in groups, and in families. Clients
seen by counselors live and work in a wide variety of settings. Their problems may require
short-term or long-term interventions that focus on just one person or with multiple individuals
who are related or not related to each other.
• Counseling is diverse and multicultural. Counselors see clients with varied cultural
backgrounds. Those from minority and majority cultures are helped in a variety of ways
depending on their needs, which may include addressing larger societal issues, such as
discrimination or prejudice.
• Counseling is a dynamic process. Counselors not only focus on their clients’ goals, they
help clients accomplish them. This dynamic process comes through using a variety of theories
and methods. Thus, counseling involves making choices as well as changes. Counseling
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is lively and engaging. In most cases, “counseling is a rehearsal for action” (Casey, 1996,
p. 176) either internally with thoughts and feelings or externally with behavior.
In addition to defining counseling in general, the ACA has defined a professional counseling
specialty, which is an area (within counseling) that is “narrowly focused, requiring advanced
knowledge in the field” of counseling (www.counseling.org). Among the specialties within
counseling are those dealing with educational settings such as schools or colleges and those
pertaining to situations in life such as marriage, mental health, rehabilitation, aging, addiction,
and careers. According to the ACA, becoming a specialist is founded on the premise that “all
professional counselors must first meet the requirements for the general practice of professional
counseling” (www.counseling.org).
PERSONAL REFLECTION
What special talents do you have? How did they develop from your overall definition of yourself as
a person? How do you see your personal circumstances paralleling the general definition of counseling
and counseling specialties?
History of Counseling
Before 1900
Counseling is a relatively new profession (Aubrey, 1977, 1982). It developed in the late 1890s
and early 1900s, and was interdisciplinary from its inception. “Some of the functions of counselors
were and are shared by persons in other professions” (Herr & Fabian, 1993, p. 3). Before the
1900s, most counseling was in the form of advice or information. In the United States, counseling
developed out of a humanitarian concern to improve the lives of those adversely affected by
the Industrial Revolution of the mid- to late 1800s (Aubrey, 1983). The social welfare reform
movement (now known as social justice), the spread of public education, and various changes
in population makeup (e.g., the enormous influx of immigrants) also influenced the growth of
the fledgling profession (Aubrey, 1977; Goodyear, 1984). Overall, “counseling emerged during
a socially turbulent period that straddled the ending of one century and the beginning of another,
a period marked by great change that caused a major shift in the way individuals viewed themselves
and others” (Ginter, 2002, p. 220).
Most of the pioneers in counseling identified themselves as teachers and social reformers/
advocates. They focused on teaching children and young adults about themselves, others, and
the world of work. Initially, these helpers were involved primarily in child welfare, educational/
vocational guidance, and legal reform. Their work was built on specific information and lessons,
such as moral instruction on being good and doing right, as well as a concentrated effort to deal
with intra- and interpersonal relations (Nugent & Jones, 2009). They saw needs in American
society and took steps to fulfill them. Nevertheless, “no mention of counseling was made in the
professional literature until 1931” (Aubrey, 1983, p. 78). Classroom teachers and administrators
were the main practitioners.
One way to chart the evolution of counseling is to trace important events and personal
influences through the 20th century. Keep in mind that the development of professional counseling,
like the activity itself, was and is a process. Therefore, some names and events do not fit
neatly into a rigid chronology. They overlap.
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1900–1909
Counseling was an infant profession in the early 1900s. During this decade, however, three
persons emerged as leaders in counseling’s development: Frank Parsons, Jesse B. Davis, and
Clifford Beers.
Frank Parsons, often called the founder of guidance, focused his work on growth and
prevention. His influence was great in his time and it is “Parson’s body of work and his efforts
to help others [that] lie at the center of the wheel that represents present day counseling” (Ginter,
2002, p. 221). Parsons had a colorful life career in multiple disciplines, being a lawyer, an
engineer,
a college teacher, and a social worker before ultimately becoming a social reformer
and working with youth (Hartung & Blustein, 2002; Pope & Sweinsdottir, 2005; Sweeney,
2001). He has been characterized as a broad scholar, a persuasive writer, a tireless activist, and a
great intellect (Davis, 1988; Zytowski, 1985). However, he is best known for founding Boston’s
Vocational Bureau in 1908, a major step in the institutionalization of vocational guidance.
At the Bureau, Parsons worked with young people who were in the process of making
career
decisions. He “envisioned a practice of vocational guidance based on rationality and
reason with service,
concern for others, cooperation, and social justice among its core values”
(Hartung & Blustein, 2002, p. 41). He theorized that choosing a vocation was a matter of relating
three factors:
a knowledge of work, a knowledge of self, and a matching of the two through
“true reasoning.” Thus, Parsons devised a number of procedures to help his clients learn more
about themselves and the world of work. One of his devices was an extensive questionnaire that
asked about
experiences (“How did you spend each evening last week?”), preferences (“At a
World’s Fair, what would you want to see first? second? third?”), and morals (“When
have you sacrificed advantage for the right?”) (Gummere, 1988, p. 404).
Parsons’s book Choosing a Vocation (1909), published one year after his death, was quite
influential, especially in Boston. For example, the superintendent of Boston schools, Stratton
Brooks, designated 117 elementary and secondary teachers as vocational counselors. The
“Boston example” soon spread to other major cities as school personnel recognized the need for
vocational planning. By 1910, 35 cities were emulating Boston (Lee, 1966).
Jesse B. Davis was the first person to set up a systematized guidance program in the public
schools (Aubrey, 1977; Brewer, 1942). As superintendent of the Grand Rapids, Michigan,
school system, he suggested in 1907 that classroom teachers of English composition teach their
students a lesson in guidance once a week, to accomplish the goal of building character and
preventing problems. Influenced by progressive American educators such as Horace Mann and
John Dewey, Davis believed that proper guidance would help cure the ills of American society
(Davis, 1914). What he and other progressive educators advocated was not counseling in the
modern sense but a forerunner of counseling: school guidance (a preventive educational means
of teaching students how to deal effectively with life events).
Clifford Beers, a former Yale student, was hospitalized for depression several times during
his life (Kiselica & Robinson, 2001). He found conditions in mental institutions deplorable
and exposed them in his book, A Mind That Found Itself (1908), which became a popular best
seller. Beers used the book as a platform to advocate for better mental health facilities and reform
in the treatment of people with mental illness by making friends with and soliciting funds from
influential people of his day, such as the Fords and Rockefellers. His work had an especially
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powerful influence on the fields of psychiatry and psychology. “Many people in these fields
referred to what they were doing as counseling,” which was seen “as a means of helping people
adjust to themselves and society” (Hansen, Rossberg, & Cramer, 1994, p. 5). Beers’s work was
the impetus for the mental health movement in the United States, as well as advocacy groups that
exist today including the National Mental Health Association and the National Alliance for the
Mentally Ill. His work was also a forerunner of mental health counseling.
CASE EXAMPLE
Doug Deliberates
After reading about the three major pioneers in the profession of counseling, Doug deliberated
about who among them was most important. At first he was sure it must be Frank Parsons because
Parsons seemed the most scientific and influential of the group. Yet as he thought, he was
not sure. Where would counseling be without Clifford Beers’s influence on mental health and
Jesse Davis’s work in the school?
Who do you think was the most important of these three? Why?
1910s
Three events had a profound impact on the development of counseling during the 1910s. The
first was the 1913 founding of the National Vocational Guidance Association (NVGA), which
was the forerunner of the American Counseling Association. It began publishing a bulletin in
1915 (Goodyear, 1984). In 1921, the National Vocational Guidance Bulletin started regular
publication. It evolved in later years to become the National Vocational Guidance Magazine
(1924–1933), Occupations: The Vocational Guidance Magazine (1933–1944), Occupations:
The Vocational Guidance Journal (1944–1952), Personnel and Guidance Journal (1952–1984),
and, finally, the Journal of Counseling and Development (1984 to the present). NVGA was
important
because it established an association offering guidance literature and united those with
an interest in vocational counseling for the first time.
Complementing the founding of NVGA was congressional passage of the Smith-Hughes
Act of 1917. This legislation provided funding for public schools to support vocational education.
World War I was the third important event of the decade. During the war “counseling
became more widely recognized as the military began to employ testing and placement practices
for great numbers of military personnel” (Hollis, 2000, p. 45). In this process, the Army commissioned
the development of numerous psychological instruments, among them the Army Alpha
and Army Beta intelligence tests. Several of the Army’s screening devices were employed in
civilian populations after the war, and psychometrics (psychological testing) became a popular
movement and an early foundation on which counseling was based.
Aubrey (1977) observes that, because the vocational guidance movement developed without
an explicit philosophy, it quickly embraced psychometrics to gain a legitimate foundation in
psychology. Reliance on psychometrics had both positive and negative effects. On the positive
side, it gave vocational guidance specialists a stronger and more “scientific” identity. On the
negative side, it distracted many specialists from examining developments in other behavioral
sciences, such as sociology, biology, and anthropology.
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1920s
The 1920s were relatively quiet for the developing counseling profession. This was a period
of consolidation. Education courses for counselors, which had begun at Harvard University
in 1911, almost exclusively emphasized vocational guidance during the 1920s. The dominant
influences on the emerging profession were the progressive theories of education and the federal
government’s use of guidance services with war veterans.
A notable event was the certification of counselors in Boston and New York in the mid-
1920s. Another turning point was the development of the first standards for the preparation and
evaluation of occupational materials (Lee, 1966). Along with these standards came the publication
of new psychological instruments such as Edward Strong’s Strong Vocational Interest
Inventory (SVII) in 1927. The publication of this instrument set the stage for future directions
for assessment in counseling (Strong, 1943).
A final noteworthy event was Abraham and Hannah Stone’s 1929 establishment of the first
marriage and family counseling center in New York City. This center was followed by others
across the nation, marking the beginning of the specialty of marriage and family counseling.
Throughout the decade, the guidance movement gained acceptance within American
society.
At the same time, the movement’s narrow emphasis on vocational interests began to
be challenged. Counselors were broadening their focus to include issues of personality and
development,
such as those that concerned the family.
1930s
The 1930s were not as quiet as the 1920s, in part because the Great Depression influenced
researchers
and practitioners, especially in university and vocational settings, to emphasize
helping strategies and counseling methods that related to employment. A highlight of the
decade
was the development of the first theory of counseling, which was formulated by
E. G. Williamson and his colleagues (including John Darley and Donald Paterson) at the
University of Minnesota. Williamson modified Parsons’s theory and used it to work with
students
and the unemployed. His emphasis on a direct, counselor-centered approach came
to be known by several names—for example, as the Minnesota point of view and trait-factor
counseling. His pragmatic approach emphasized the counselor’s teaching, mentoring, and influencing
skills (Williamson, 1939).
One premise of Williamson’s theory was that persons had traits (e.g., aptitudes, interests,
personalities, achievements) that could be integrated in a variety of ways to form factors
(constellations of individual characteristics). Counseling was based on a scientific, problemsolving,
empirical method that was individually tailored to each client to help him or her stop
nonproductive thinking/behavior and become an effective decision maker (Lynch & Maki,
1981). Williamson thought the task of the counselor was to ascertain a deficiency in the client,
such as a lack of knowledge or a skill, and then to prescribe a procedure to rectify the problem.
Williamson’s influence dominated counseling for the next two decades, and he continued to
write about his theory into the 1970s (Williamson & Biggs, 1979).
Another major occurrence was the broadening of counseling beyond occupational concerns.
The seeds of this development were sown in the 1920s, when Edward Thorndike began
to challenge the vocational orientation of the guidance movement (Lee, 1966). The work of
John Brewer completed this change in emphasis. Brewer published a book titled Education as
Guidance in 1932. He proposed that every teacher be a counselor and that guidance be incorporated
into the school curriculum as a subject. Brewer believed that all education should focus
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on preparing students to live outside the school environment. His emphasis made counselors see
vocational decisions as just one part of their responsibilities.
During the 1930s the U.S. government became more involved in guidance and counseling.
For example, in 1938 Congress passed the George-Dean Act that created the Vocational
Education Division of the U.S. Office of Education and an Occupational Information and
Guidance Service (Sweeney, 2001). Evolving from this measure was the creation of state
supervisors
of guidance positions in state departments of education throughout the nation. Thus,
school counseling, still known as guidance in the 1930s, became more of a national phenomenon.
Furthermore, the government established the U.S. Employment Service in the 1930s.
This agency published the first edition of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT) in 1939.
The DOT, which became a major source of career information for guidance specialists working
with students and the unemployed, described known occupations in the United States and coded
them according to job titles.
1940s
Three major events in the 1940s radically shaped the practice of counseling: the theory of Carl
Rogers, World War II, and government’s involvement in counseling after the war.
Carl Rogers rose to prominence in 1942 with the publication of his book Counseling
and Psychotherapy, which challenged the counselor-centered approach of Williamson as well
as major tenets of Freudian psychoanalysis. Rogers emphasized the importance of the client,
espousing a nondirective approach to counseling. His ideas were both widely accepted and
harshly criticized. Rogers advocated giving clients responsibility for their own growth. He
thought that if clients had an opportunity to be accepted and listened to, then they would begin
to know themselves better and become more congruent (genuine). He described the role of the
professional helper as being nonjudgmental and accepting. Thus, the helper served as a mirror,
reflecting the verbal and emotional manifestations of the client.
Aubrey (1977, p. 292) has noted that, before Rogers, the literature in guidance and
counseling
was quite practical, dealing with testing, cumulative records, orientation procedures,
vocations, and placement functions. In addition, this early literature dealt extensively
with the goals and purpose of guidance. With Rogers, there was a new emphasis on the importance
of the relationship in counseling, research, refinement of counseling technique, selection
and training of future counselors, and the goals and objectives of counseling. Guidance, for all
intents and purposes, suddenly disappeared as a major consideration in the bulk of the literature
and was replaced by a decade or more of concentration on counseling. The Rogers revolution
had a major impact on both counseling and psychology. Not only did Rogers’s ideas come to
the forefront, but a considerable number of alternative systems of psychotherapy emerged as
well (Corsini, 2008).
With the advent of World War II, the U.S. government needed counselors and psychologists
to help select and train specialists for the military and industry. The war also brought about
a new way of looking at vocations for men and women. Many women worked outside the
home during the war, exemplified by such personalities as Rosie the Riveter. Women’s contributions
to work and the well-being of the United States during the crisis of war made a lasting
impact. Traditional occupational sex roles began to be questioned, and greater emphasis was
placed on personal freedom.
After the war, the U.S. government further promoted counseling through the George-
Barden Act of 1946, which provided vocational education funds through the U.S. Office of
Education for counselor training institutes (Sweeney, 2001). In addition, the Veterans
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Administration (VA) funded the training of counselors and psychologists by granting stipends
and paid internships for students engaged in graduate study. The VA also “rewrote specifications
for vocational counselors and coined the term ‘counseling psychologist’” (Nugent, 1981,
p. 25). Money made available through the VA and the GI bill (benefits for veterans) influenced
teaching professionals in graduate education to define their curriculum offerings more precisely.
Counseling psychology, as a profession, began to move further away from its historical alliance
with vocational guidance.
1950s
“If one decade in history had to be singled out for the most profound impact on counselors, it
would be the 1950s” (Aubrey, 1977, p. 292). Indeed, the decade produced at least five major
events that dramatically changed the history of counseling:
1. The establishment of the American Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA);
2. The charting of the American School Counselor Association (ASCA);
3. The establishment of Division 17 (Society of Counseling Psychology) within the American
Psychological Association (APA);
4. The passage of the National Defense Education Act (NDEA); and
5. The introduction of new guidance and counseling theories.
American Personnel and Guidance Association. APGA grew out of the Council of
Guidance and Personnel Associations (CGPA), a loose confederation of organizations “concerned
with educational and vocational guidance and other personnel activities” (Harold, 1985,
p. 4). CGPA operated from 1934 to 1951, but its major drawback was a lack of power to commit
its members to any course of action (Sheeley & Stickle, 2008). APGA was formed in 1952 with
the purpose of formally organizing groups interested in guidance, counseling, and personnel matters.
Its original four divisions were the American College Personnel Association (Division 1),
the National Association of Guidance Supervisors and Counselor Trainers (Division 2), the
NVGA (Division 3), and the Student Personnel Association for Teacher Education (Division 4)
(Sheeley, 2002). During its early history, APGA was an interest group rather than a professional
organization because it did not originate or enforce standards for membership (Super, 1955).
Th e Cha rtering of the America n Sch ool Counselor Association (ASCA). In
1953, the American School Counselor Association was chartered. It joined APGA as its fifth
member shortly thereafter. By joining APGA, ASCA strengthened the association numerically,
pragmatically, and philosophically.
Division 17. In 1952, the Society of Counseling Psychology (Division 17) of APA was
formally
established. It was initially known as the Division of Counseling Psychology. Its
formation
required dropping the term “guidance” from what had formerly been the association’s
Counseling and Guidance Division. Part of the impetus for the division’s creation came from
the VA, but the main impetus came from APA members interested in working with a more
“
normal” population than the one seen by clinical psychologists (Whiteley, 1984).
Once created, Division 17 became more fully defined. Super (1955), for instance, distinguished
between counseling psychology and clinical psychology, holding that counseling psychology
was more concerned with normal human growth and development and was influenced
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in its approach by both vocational counseling and humanistic psychotherapy. Despite Super’s
work, counseling psychology had a difficult time establishing a clear identity within the APA
(Whiteley, 1984). Yet the division’s existence has had a major impact on the growth and development
of counseling as a profession. In fact, luminaries in the counseling profession such as
Gilbert Wrenn and Donald Super held offices in both Division 17 and in APGA divisions for
years and published in the periodicals of both.
National Defense Education Act. A fourth major event was the passage in 1958 of the
National Defense Education Act (NDEA), which was enacted following the Soviet Union’s
launching of its first space satellite, Sputnik I. The act’s primary purpose was to identify scientifically
and academically talented students and promote their development. It provided funds
through Title V-A for upgrading school counseling programs, established counseling and
guidance institutes, and offered funds and stipends through Title V-B to train counselors. In
1964, the NDEA was extended to include elementary counseling. The results were impressive.
From 1908 to 1958, the number of school counselors grew to 12,000. “In less than a decade, the
number of school counselors quadrupled and counselor to student ratio decreased from 1 to 960
in 1958 to 1 to 450 by 1966–1967” (Bradley & Cox, 2001, p. 34). Indeed, the end of the 1950s
began a boom in school counseling that lasted through the 1960s thanks to the cold war and the
coming of school age of the baby boom generation (Baker, 1996).
PERSONAL REFLECTION
Much of the growth of counseling in the 1950s came as a reaction to external events or pressures.
What other positive outcomes have you seen emerge from crises, such as natural or person-initiated
disasters? For example, the state of New York passed legislation licensing counselors as mental
health professionals after September 11, 2001.
New Theories. The last major event during this decade was the emergence of new guidance
and counseling theories. Before 1950, four main theories influenced the work of counselors:
(a) psychoanalysis and insight theory (e.g., Sigmund Freud); (b) trait-factor or directive theories
(e.g., E. G. Williamson); (c) humanistic and client-centered theories (e.g., Carl Rogers); and, to
a lesser extent, (d) behavioral theories (e.g., B. F. Skinner). Debates among counselors usually
centered on whether directive or nondirective counseling was most effective, and almost all
counselors assumed that certain tenets of psychoanalysis (e.g., defense mechanisms) were true.
During the 1950s, debate gradually shifted away from this focus as new theories of helping
began to emerge. Applied behavioral theories, such as Joseph Wolpe’s systematic desensitization,
began to gain influence. Cognitive theories also made an appearance, as witnessed by the
growth of Albert Ellis’s rational-emotive therapy, Eric Berne’s transactional analysis, and Aaron
Beck’s cognitive therapy. Learning theory, self-concept theory, Donald Super’s work in career
development, and advances in developmental psychology made an impact as well (Aubrey,
1977). By the end of the decade, the number and complexity of theories associated with counseling
had grown considerably.
1960s
The initial focus of the 1960s was on counseling as a developmental profession. Gilbert
Wrenn set the tone for the decade in his widely influential book, The Counselor in a Changing
World (1962a). His emphasis, reinforced by other prominent professionals such as Leona Tyler
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and Donald Blocher, was on working with others to resolve developmental needs. Wrenn’s book
had influence throughout the 1960s, and he, along with Tyler, became one of the strongest counseling
advocates in the United States.
The impact of the developmental model lessened, however, as the decade continued,
primarily
because of three events: the Vietnam War, the civil rights movement, and the
women’s movement. Each event stirred up passions and pointed out needs within society. Many
counselors attempted to address these issues by concentrating their attention on special needs
created by the events.
Other powerful influences that emerged during the decade were the humanistic counseling
theories of Dugald Arbuckle, Abraham Maslow, and Sidney Jourard. Also important was
the phenomenal growth of the group movement (Gladding, 2012). The emphasis of counseling
shifted from a one-on-one encounter to small-group interaction. Behavioral counseling grew in
importance with the appearance of John Krumboltz’s Revolution in Counseling (1966), in which
learning (beyond insight) was promoted as the root of change. Thus, the decade’s initial focus
on development became sidetracked. As Aubrey notes, “the cornucopia of competing counseling
methodologies presented to counselors reached an all-time high in the late 1960s” (1977, p. 293).
Another noteworthy occurrence was the passage of the 1963 Community Mental
Health Centers Act, which authorized the establishment of community mental health centers.
These centers opened up opportunities for counselor employment outside educational settings.
For instance,
alcohol abuse counseling and addiction counseling, initially called drug abuse
counseling, began in the 1960s and were offered in mental health centers among other places.
Marriage and family counseling also emerged in such centers during this time because of the
increase in the divorce rate (Hollis, 2000).
Professionalism within the APGA and the continued professional movement within
Division 17 of the APA also increased during the 1960s. In 1961, APGA published a “sound
code of ethics for counselors” (Nugent, 1981, p. 28). Also during the 1960s, Loughary, Stripling,
and Fitzgerald (1965) edited an APGA report that summarized role definitions and training
standards
for school counselors. Division 17, which had further clarified the definition of a counseling
psychologist at the 1964 Greyston Conference, began in 1969 to publish a professional
journal, The Counseling Psychologist, with Gilbert Wrenn as its first editor.
A final noteworthy milestone was the establishment of the ERIC Clearinghouse on
Counseling and Personnel Services (CAPS) at the University of Michigan. Founded in 1966
by Garry Walz and funded by the Office of Educational Research and Improvement at the U.S.
Department of Education, ERIC/CAPS was another example of the impact of government on the
development of counseling. Through the years ERIC/CAPS would become one of the largest
and most used resources on counseling activities and trends in the United States and throughout
the world. It also sponsored conferences on leading topics in counseling that brought national
leaders together.
1970s
The 1970s saw the emergence of several trends that were influenced by actions apart from and
within counseling circles. New initiatives related to diversity such as working with women,
minorities,
and people with disabilities were initiated. They were partly the result of the passage
of
Title IX, affirmative action, and legislation for disabled persons. Within counseling,
occurrences
that propelled the profession forward were the formation of helping skills programs,
the
beginning
of licensure, and the further development of the APGA.
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Diversification in Counseling Settings. The rapid growth of counseling outside educational
institutions began in the 1970s when mental health centers and community agencies
began to employ counselors. This hiring occurred for several reasons including the passage of
new federal legislation, which opened up human services activities more to girls and women,
minorities, and persons with disabilities. Specifically, Title IX of the Education Amendments
came online, along with affirmative action laws, and antidiscrimination legislation against
people with disabilities.
The diversification of counseling meant that specialized training began to be offered in
counselor education programs. It also meant the development of new concepts of counseling.
For example, Lewis and Lewis (1977) coined the term community counselor for a new type
of counselor who could function in multidimensional roles regardless of employment setting.
Many community counseling programs were established, and counselors became more
common
in agencies such as mental health clinics, hospices, employee assistance programs,
psychiatric
hospitals,
rehabilitation centers, and substance abuse centers. Equally as striking,
and as dramatic
in growth, was the formation of the American Mental Health Counseling
Association (AMHCA) within APGA. Founded in 1976, AMHCA quickly became one of the
largest divisions
within APGA and united mental health counselors into a professional organization
where they defined their roles and goals.
Helping Skills Programs. The 1970s saw the development of helping skills programs
that concentrated on relationship and communication skills. Begun by Truax and Carkhuff
(1967) and Ivey (1971), these programs taught basic counseling skills to professionals and nonprofessionals
alike. The emphasis was humanistic and eclectic. It was assumed that certain fundamental
skills should be mastered to establish satisfactory personal interaction. A bonus for
counselors who received this type of training was that they could teach it to others rather easily.
Counselors could now consult by teaching some of their skills to those with whom they worked,
mainly teachers and paraprofessionals. In many ways, this trend was a new version of Brewer’s
concept of education as guidance.
State Licensure. By the mid-1970s, state boards of examiners for psychologists had become
restrictive. Some of their restrictions, such as barring graduates of education department
counseling programs from taking the psychology licensure exam, caused considerable tension,
not only between APA and APGA but also within the APA membership itself. The result was
APGA’s move toward state and national licensure for counselors. Thomas J. Sweeney (1991)
chaired the first APGA Licensure Committee and he and his successors did so with much success.
Virginia was the first state to adopt a professional counselor licensure law, doing so in
1976. It was followed quickly by Arkansas and Alabama before the decade ended (Figure 1.1).
In regard to licensure, it should be noted that California passed a marriage, family, and child
counselor law in 1962. The problem with the California law was it defined the term “counselor”
broadly and later replaced the term with the word “therapist,”which was strictly defined, and
which ultimately disenfranchised counselors. It was not until 2010 that the California legislature
passed a professional counselor licensure law.
A Strong APGA. During the 1970s, APGA emerged as an even stronger professional
organization.
Several changes altered its image and function, one of which was the building
of its own headquarters in Alexandria, Virginia. APGA also began to question its professional
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identification because guidance and personnel seemed to be outmoded ways of defining the
organization’s emphases.
In 1973, the Association of Counselor Educators and Supervisors (ACES), a division
of APGA, outlined the standards for a master’s degree in counseling. Robert Stripling of the
University of Florida spearheaded that effort. In 1977, ACES approved guidelines for doctoral
preparation in counseling (Stripling, 1978). During the decade, APGA membership increased
to almost 40,000. Four new divisions (in addition to AMHCA) were chartered: the Association
for Religious and Value Issues in Counseling, the Association for Specialists in Group Work,
the Association for Non-White Concerns in Personnel and Guidance, and the Public Offender
Counselor Association.
MD
1985
NJ
1993
VT
1988
NY
2002
NH
1995 ME
1990
MA
1987
RI
1987
SC
1985
WA
1987
LA
1987
OK
1985
HI
2004
UT
1994
MT
1983
CO
1988
NE
1986
MO
1985
IA
1992
SD
1990
AK
1979
TN
1984
WV
1986 VA
1976
NC
1983
GA
1984
FL
1981
AL
MS 1979
1985
AZ
1988
OR
1989
NV
2007
ND
1989
OH
IL 1984
1992
MI
1989
KS
1987
NM
1994
WY
1987
ID
1982
TX
1981
DE
1987
WI
1992
DC
1992
CT
1997
KY
1996
IN
1997
AK
1998
PA
1999
MN
2003
CA
2010
FIGURE 1.1 All states legally regulate counselors
CASE EXAMPLE
Justin Feels Justified
Justin received his counseling degree in the mid-1970s. Although counseling was not as developed
as it is now, Justin feels considerable pride in how the profession grew during “his decade.”
He feels justified telling others that the 1970s was the best decade for becoming a counselor.
How is his claim supported? What might he be overlooking?
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1980s
The 1980s saw the continued growth of counseling as a profession, exemplified by proactive
initiatives from counselors associated with APGA and Division 17. Among the most noteworthy
events of the decade were those that standardized the training and certification of counselors,
recognized counseling as a distinct profession, increased the diversification of counselor specialties,
and emphasized human growth and development.
Standardization of Training and Certification. The move toward standardized
training and certification was one that began early in the decade and grew stronger yearly.
In 1981, the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs
(CACREP) was formed as an affiliate organization of APGA. It refined the standards first
proposed
by ACES in the late 1970s and initially accredited four programs and recognized
others
that had been accredited
by the California state counselor association and ACES
(Steinhauser & Bradley, 1983). In 1987, CACREP achieved membership in the Council
on Postsecondary Accreditation (COPA), bringing it “into a position of accreditation power
parallel to” such specialty
accreditation
bodies
as the APA (Herr, 1985, p. 399). CACREP
standardized counselor
education programs for master’s
and doctoral programs in the areas of
school, community, mental
health, and marriage and family counseling, as well as for personnel
services for college students.
Complementary to the work of CACREP, the National Board for Certified Counselors
(NBCC), which was formed in 1982, began to certify counselors on a national level. It developed
a standardized test and defined eight major subject areas in which counselors should be knowledgeable:
(a) human growth and development, (b) social and cultural foundations, (c) helping
relationships, (d) groups, (e) lifestyle and career development, (f) appraisal, (g) research and
evaluation, and (h) professional orientation. To become a National Certified Counselor (NCC),
examinees have to pass a standardized test and meet experiential and character reference qualifications.
By the end of the decade, there were approximately 17,000 NCC professionals.
Finally, in collaboration with CACREP, the National Academy of Certified Clinical
Mental Health Counselors (NACCMHC), an affiliate of the AMHCA, continued to define
training standards and certify counselors in mental health counseling, a process it had begun in
the late 1970s (Seiler, Brooks, & Beck, 1987; Wilmarth, 1985). It also began training supervisors
of mental health counselors in 1988. Both programs attracted thousands of new professionals
into counseling and upgraded the credentials of those already in the field.
Counseling as a Distinct Profession. The evolution of counseling in the 1980s as a
distinct helping profession came as a result of events, issues, and forces, both inside and outside
APGA (Heppner, 1990b). Inside APGA was a growing awareness among its leaders that the
words “personnel” and “guidance” no longer described the work of its members (Sheeley, 2002).
In 1984, after considerable debate, the APGA changed its name to the American Association
for Counseling and Development (AACD) to “reflect the changing demographics of its membership
and the settings in which they worked” (Herr, 1985, p. 395). The name change was symbolic
of the rapid transformation in identity that APGA members had been experiencing through
the implementation of policies regarding training, certification, and standards. External events
that influenced APGA to change its name and ultimately its focus included legislation, especially
on the federal level, that recognized mental health providers and actions by other mental health
services associations.
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Moreover, there was a newness in professional commitment among AACD members. Chi
Sigma Iota, an international academic and professional honor society, was formed in 1985
by Thomas J. Sweeney to promote excellence in the counseling profession. It grew to more
than 100 chapters and 5,000 members by the end of the decade (Sweeney, 1989). Furthermore,
liability
insurance policies, new counseling specialty publications, legal defense funds, legislative
initiatives, and a variety of other membership services were made available to AACD members
by its national headquarters (Myers, 1990). By 1989, over 58,000 individuals had become
members of AACD, an increase of more than 18,000 members in 10 years.
The founding of CSI was followed the next year, 1986, by the establishment of the
American Association of State Counseling Boards (AASCB) by Ted Remley. AASCB from
the beginning was an association of bodies that were legally responsible for the registration,
certification, or licensing of counselors within their jurisdictions in the United States. The first
meeting of the group was in Charleston, South Carolina.
Division 17 also continued to grow at a steady rate (Woody, Hansen, & Rossberg, 1989).
In 1987, a professional standards conference was assembled by its president, George Gazda, to
define further the uniqueness of counseling psychology and counseling in general.
PERSONAL REFLECTION
What’s in a name? Think of your own name and how it has influenced your relationships. If you have
changed your name, write down some of the impacts of that change. What might be some of the
ramifications of a counseling organization changing its name?
More Diversification of Counseling. During the 1980s, counselors became more diversified.
Large numbers of counselors continued to be employed in primary and secondary schools
and in higher education in a variety of student personnel services. Mental health counselors and
community/agency counselors were the two largest blocks of professionals outside formal educational
environments. In addition, the number of counselors swelled in mental health settings
for business employees, the aging, and married persons and families. Symbolic of that growth,
the Association for Adult Development and Aging (AADA) and the International Association
for Marriage and Family Counselors (IAMFC) were organized and chartered as divisions of
AACD in 1987 and 1990, respectively.
Strong membership in AACD divisions dedicated to group work, counselor education,
humanistic
education, measurement and development, religious and value issues, employment
and career development, rehabilitation, multicultural concerns, addiction and offender work, and
military personnel further exemplified the diversity of counseling during the 1980s. Special issues
of AACD journals focused on topics such as violence (Journal of Counseling and Development,
March 1987), the gifted and talented (Journal of Counseling and Development, May 1986), the
arts (Journal of Mental Health Counseling, January 1985), and prevention (Elementary School
Guidance and Counseling, October 1989). These publications helped broaden the scope of
counseling
services and counselor awareness.
Increased Empha sis on Human Growth and Development. Counseling’s emphasis
on human growth and development during the 1980s took several forms. For example, a
new spotlight was placed on developmental counseling across the life span (Gladstein & Apfel,
1987). New behavioral expressions associated with Erik Erikson’s first five stages of life
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development
were formulated as well (Hamachek, 1988), and an increased emphasis on the development
of adults and the elderly resulted in the formation of the Association for Adult Aging
and Development (AAAD).
A second way that human growth and development was stressed was through increased
attention to gender issues and sexual preferences (O’Neil & Carroll, 1988; Pearson, 1988;
Weinrach, 1987). Carol Gilligan’s (1982) landmark study on the development of moral values
in females, which helped introduce feminist theory into the counseling arena, forced human
growth specialists to examine the differences between genders.
An emphasis on moral development was the third way in which human growth issues
were highlighted (Colangelo, 1985; Lapsley & Quintana, 1985). There was a renewed emphasis
on models of moral development, such as Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory (1969), and increased
research in the area of enhancing moral development. In counselor education, it was found
that moral development was closely related to both cognitive ability and empathy (Bowman &
Reeves, 1987).
Finally, the challenges of working with different ethnic and cultural groups received
more discussion (Ponterotto & Casas, 1987). In focusing on multicultural issues, the Association
for Multicultural Counseling and Development (AMCD) took the lead, but multicultural themes,
such as the importance of diversity, became a central issue among all groups, especially in light
of the renewed racism that developed in the 1980s (Carter, 1990).
1990s
The 1990s continued to see changes in the evolution of the counseling profession, some of them
symbolic and others structural. One change that was significant was the 1992 decision by the
AACD to modify its name and become the American Counseling Association (ACA). The new
name better reflected the membership and mission of the organization.
A second noteworthy event in the 1990s also occurred in 1992, when counseling, as a
primary
mental health profession, was included for the first time in the health care human
resource
statistics compiled by the Center for Mental Health Services and the National
Institute of Mental Health (Manderscheid & Sonnenschein, 1992). This type of recognition put
counseling
on par with other mental health specialties such as psychology, social work, and
psychiatry. By the beginning of the 21st century, it was estimated that there were approximately
100,000 counselors
in the United States (Wedding, 2008).
A third event in counseling that also originated in 1992 was the writing of the multicultural
counseling competencies and standards by Sue, Arredondo, and McDavis (1992). Although
these competencies mainly applied to counseling with people of color, they set the stage for a
larger debate about the nature of multicultural counseling—for instance, the inclusion
within the
definition of other groups, such as people with disabilities. Thus, a lively discussion
occurred
during the decade about what diversity and counseling within a pluralistic society entailed
(Weinrach & Thomas, 1998).
A fourth issue in the 1990s was a focus on health care and an increase in managed
health care organizations. Conglomerates emerged, and many counselors became providers
under these new organized ways of providing services. As a result, the number of independent
counselor
practitioners decreased as did the number of sessions a counselor could offer under
managed health care plans. A new emphasis on legislation connected with these organizations
forced counselors to become increasingly informed and active as legislative proponents
(Barstow, 1998).
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In addition, there was a renewed focus within the decade on counseling issues related to
the whole person. Counselors became more aware of social factors important to the development
and maintenance of mental disorders and health including the importance of organism-context
interaction (i.e., contextualism) (Thomas, 1996). These factors include spirituality, family environment,
socioeconomic considerations, the impact of groups and group work, and prevention
(Bemak, 1998).
Other developments in the 1990s included the following:
• The merger of the National Academy of Clinical Mental Health Counselors with NBCC to
credential counselors.
• The growth of CACREP-accredited programs in counselor education on both the doctoral
and master’s levels.
• An increase in the number of publications on counseling by ACA, commercial publishers,
and ERIC/CASS (Counseling and Student Services Clearinghouse).
• The growth of Chi Sigma Iota to over 200 chapters and 20,000 members.
• Growth of state counselor licensure laws.
Current Trends in the Twenty-First Century
In 2002, counseling formally celebrated its 50th anniversary as a profession under the
umbrella
of the ACA. However, within the celebration was a realization that counseling is
ever changing and that emphases of certain topics, issues, and concerns at the beginning of the
21st century would most likely change with the needs of clients and society. The changing roles
of men and women, innovations in media and technology, poverty, homelessness, trauma, loneliness,
and aging, among other topics, captured counseling’s attention as the new century began
(Lee & Walz, 1998; Webber & Mascari, 2010). Among the most pressing topics were dealing
with violence,
trauma, and crises; managed care; wellness; social justice; technology; leadership;
and identity.
Dealing with Violence, Trauma, and Crises
Conflict is a part of most societies, even those that are predominantly peaceful. It occurs “when
a person perceives another to be interfering or obstructing progress toward meeting important
needs” (Corcoran & Mallinckrodt, 2000, p. 474). Violence results when one or more parties
address
conflict in terms of win–lose tactics. In the United States concerns about conflict and
safety from both a prevention and treatment standpoint have emerged in the past couple of
decades
from a rash of school shootings, such as Columbine, and the Oklahoma City bombing
where in each a number of innocent people were killed (Daniels, 2002). A defining moment
in conflict and violence occurred on 9/11/2001 when terrorists crashed commercial airliners
into the World Trade Center towers in New York City and the Pentagon in Washington, DC.
These acts signaled the beginning of an active and new emphasis in counseling on preparing
and responding
to trauma and tragedies such as those associated with Hurricane Katrina,
the Iraq and Afghanistan Wars, and the Virginia Tech shootings (Walz & Kirkman, 2002;
Webber & Mascari, 2010). Within this new emphasis is a practical focus, such as developing
crisis
plans and strategies for working with different age groups from young children to the
elderly
in order to provide psychological first aid and facilitate the grieving and healing process.
Trauma is a normal response to a very abnormal situation. “Natural disasters, ongoing
wars, terrorist attacks, plane crashes, school violence and abuse are among the most widely
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recognized causes of trauma . . . trauma can also stem from events that don’t necessarily
make the national news” (Shallcross, 2010, p. 26). Indeed, there are the tragedies of daily
life—auto accidents, or the sudden loss of family members, friends, classmates, or coworkers
that have a traumatic effect on individuals as profound as any major occurrence in the
world. These events and the people who experience them are those with whom counselors
interact with most. Some of the signs and symptoms associated with trauma-induced stress
include sleep disturbance, emotional instability, impaired concentration, and an inability
to perform routine and regular daily tasks. However, not all signs of trauma are visible.
Nevertheless, early intervention for trauma survivors should emphasize helping them to connect
with natural social support systems and resources that are available to them in their
communities.
In the area of dealing with trauma, a renewed emphasis has been focused in recent years
on the treatment of stress and both acute stress disorder (ASD) and post-traumatic stress
disorder
(PTSD) (Jordan, 2002; Marotta, 2000; Taylor & Baker, 2007). Both ASD and PTSD
develop as a result of being exposed to a traumatic event involving actual or threatened injury
(American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Threats are associated with intense fear, helplessness,
or horror. ASD is more transient; people develop symptoms within about 4 weeks of a
situation and resolve
them within about another 4 weeks (Jordan, 2002). However, PTSD differs
in that, whereas, except
in cases of delayed onset, symptoms occur within about a month
of an incident, they may last for months or years if not treated. People who develop PTSD may
display a number of symptoms including reexperiencing the traumatic event again through
flashbacks, avoidance of trauma-related activities, and emotional numbing plus other disorders
such as substance abuse, obsessive-compulsive disorders, and panic disorders (Jones,
Young, & Leppma, 2010).
Many survivors of the 9/11 World Trade attacks suffered from PTSD years later. A survey
of over 3,200 evacuees of the Twin Towers found that nearly all suffered at least one PTSD
symptom and 15% had PTSD 2 or 3 years after the attacks. The likelihood of PTSD was greater
for those who evacuated later, were on a high floor, or worked for a company that lost employees
in the disaster (Columbia University’s Mailman School of Public Health, 2011s).
Counselors who are employed in the area of working with ASD or PTSD clients need
specialized
training to help these individuals. Crises often last in people’s minds long after
the events that produced them. Crisis counseling as well as long-term counseling services
are often needed, especially with individuals who have PTSD. For example, psychosocial
and moral development
may be arrested in PTSD war veterans making it more difficult for
them to have successful
relationships and to cope by themselves “with the trauma, confusion,
emotion,
brutality,
and fear associated with combat” (Taylor & Baker, 2007, p. 368). “It is only
by recognizing
and treatment of PTSD that trauma victims can hope to move past the impact of
trauma and lead healthy lives” (Grosse, 2002, p. 25).
The Challenge of Managed Care
“Managed care involves a contractual arrangement between a mental health professional and a
third party, the managed care company, regarding the care and treatment of the first party, the
client” (Murphy, 1998, p. 3). Managed care is and will be a major concern to counselors during
the 21st century and indeed has already become the new gatekeeper for mental health practice
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(Lawless, Ginter, & Kelly, 1999). There are only a few dominant companies in the managed care
business, but their influence is tremendous. They determine how health care providers, including
counselors, deliver services and what rights and recourses consumers have.
“Although managed care models have promoted accountability in treatment through an
emphasis on quality over quantity of services, such models often fail to acknowledge critical
differences in treatment needs related to specific issues or specific populations” (Calley, 2007,
p. 132). Managed care arrangements often require clients first to see a gatekeeper physician
before
they can be referred to a specialist such as a counselor. This restriction, along with limited
financial
reimbursement, and limitations on sessions allowed under managed care has had
mixed results.
Managed care has advanced the counseling profession by including counselors on both
managed care boards and as providers of services (Goetz, 1998). However, managed care has
also had a negative impact on the profession (Daniels, 2001). As a group, counselors have not
been well compensated under most managed care arrangements. Client consumers have often
been limited in getting the services they need. Likewise, counselors have been frustrated in being
able to offer adequate treatment or be seated on managed care boards. In addition, managed care
companies have shifted the focus of treatment from treatment that was relationship based, such
as counseling, to treatment that is more medication only based even though the research does
not support such an emphasis (Nordal, 2010). Finally, there are ethical concerns in managed
care services offered by counselors to clients. These concerns are around issues like informed
consent, confidentiality, maintaining records, competence, integrity, human welfare, conflict of
interest, and conditions of employment (Daniels, 2001).
The challenge for counselors in the future is to find ways to either work more effectively
with managed care companies or work outside such companies and still be major players in
the mental health arena. If counselors stay with managed care services, it will become increasingly
important for them to be on managed care provider boards, for it is these boards that
will ultimately determine who is credentialed and for what with managed care organizations.
Regardless, it will be essential for counselors to attain a national provider number if they are to
maintain flexibility in the services they provide.
CASE EXAMPLE
The Limitations on Lauren
Lauren was well established as a counselor. She was known for her effectiveness. She was into
long-term counseling relationships, though, and thought that anything less than a 3-month commitment
to the counseling process was a waste for both the client and the counselor.
Lauren’s philosophy and her commitment to the process of counseling bothered her when
a new client, Lucy, who appeared quite depressed showed up in her office with a managed care
contract that allowed for only six sessions. Lauren knew she could not help Lucy very effectively
in six sessions. Yet, she knew that to turn her away might make her more disturbed.
What would you do if you were in Lauren’s shoes?
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Promoting Wellness
In recent years, the idea of promoting wellness within the counseling profession has grown
(Lawson, Venart, Hazler, & Kottler, 2007; Myers & Sweeney, 2005, 2008). Wellness
involves many aspects of life including the physical, intellectual, social, psychological, emotional,
and environmental. Myers, Sweeney, and Witmer (2000) define wellness as a way
of life oriented
toward optimal health and well-being in which body, mind, and spirit are
integrated by the individual
to live life more fully within the human and natural community.
“Ideally, it is the optimum state of health and well-being that each individual is capable of
achieving” (p. 252).
A model for promoting wellness has been developed by Myers et al. (2000). It revolves
around five life tasks: spirituality, self-direction, work and leisure, friendship, and love.
Some of these tasks, such as self-direction, are further subdivided into a number of subtasks,
such as sense of worth, sense of control, problem solving and creativity, sense of humor, and
self-care. The premise of this model is that healthy functioning occurs on a developmental
continuum
that is interactive, and healthy behaviors at one point in life affect subsequent development
and functioning as well.
More and more, “professional counselors seek to encourage wellness, a positive state
of well-being, through developmental, preventive, and wellness-enhancing interventions”
(Myers & Sweeney, 2008, p. 482). There is still debate over the exact definition of wellness and
how it is measured (Roscoe, 2009). However, it appears that wellness will be one of the major
emphases within counseling in the 21st century because of the counseling profession’s focus on
health and well-being as a developmental aspect of life.
Concern for Social Justice and Advocacy
Early pioneers in what evolved to be counseling were interested in the welfare of people in
society.
Therefore, it is not surprising that counselors of today are drawn to social justice
causes and to advocacy. Social justice “reflects a fundamental valuing of fairness and equity
in resources,
rights, and treatment for marginalized individuals and groups of people who do
not share the power in society because of their immigration, racial, ethic, age, socioeconomic,
religious heritage,
physical abilities, or sexual orientation status groups” (Constantine, Hage,
Kindaichi, & Bryant, 2007, p. 24). Major elements of a social justice approach include “helping
clients identify and challenge environmental limits to their success,” “challenging systematic
forms of oppression through counselor social action,” and “liberating clients from oppressive
social practices” (Astramovich & Harris, 2007, p. 271). Social justice also helps counselors
become
more attuned to social injustices and thereby work with clients in a more sensitive and
just manner (Hays, Prosek, & McLeod, 2010).
Among the active involvement counselors are taking in social justice causes now are
advocacy,
along with community outreach, and public policy making (Constantine et al., 2007).
Advocacy involves “helping clients challenge institutional and social barriers that impede academic,
career, or personal-social development” (Lee, 1998, pp. 8–9). The purpose is to “increase
a client’s sense of personal power and to foster sociopolitical changes that reflect greater responsiveness
to the client’s personal needs” (Kiselica & Robinson, 2001, p. 387).
In order to be effective as an advocate, counselors need to have “the capacity for commitment
and an appreciation of human suffering; nonverbal and verbal communications skills; the
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ability to maintain a multisystems perspective”; individual, group, and organizational intervention
skills; “knowledge and use of the media, technology, and the Internet; and assessment and
research skills” (Kiselica & Robinson, 2001, p. 391). Advocates must also be socially smart,
knowing themselves, others, and the systems around them. Likewise, they must know when to
be diplomatic as well as confrontational. In addition, they must have a knowledge and passion
for the cause or causes they advocate for and be willing to be flexible and compromise to obtain
realistic goals.
In the American Counseling Association, Counselors for Social Justice (CSJ) and ACES
are the leading groups for advocacy and social justice. Chi Sigma Iota (Counseling Academic and
Professional Honor Society International) and NBCC are the leading advocacy groups outside
the ACA for these causes. “Counselors have an ethical and moral mandate to work toward social
justice” (Bryan, 2009, p. 510).
Greater Emphasis on Technology
Technology use has grown rapidly in counseling (Kennedy, 2008b; Shaw & Shaw, 2006).
What once was considered promising has now become reality, and technology “is having a
profound
impact on almost every aspect of life including education, business, science, religion,
government,
medicine, and agriculture” (Hohenshil, 2000, p. 365). For example, technology,
particularly the Internet, is now a major tool for career planning (Harris-Bowlsbey, Dikel, &
Sampson, 2002).
Initially, technology was used in counseling to facilitate record keeping, manipulate data,
and do word processing. More attention is now being placed on factors affecting technology
and client interaction, especially on the Internet and on telephones (Reese, Conoley, & Brossart,
2006). “The number of network-based computer applications in counseling has been increasing
rapidly” (Sampson, Kolodinsky, & Greeno, 1997, p. 203). Listservs and bulletin board systems
(BBSs) have become especially popular for posting messages and encouraging dialogue between
counselors. One of the most popular listservs in counseling, at least among counselor educators,
CASE EXAMPLE
The Tragic Death of Deamonte – A True Story
Lee and Rodgers (2009) tell the story of the death of a 12-year old boy in the metropolitan DC
area whose name was Deamonte. His mother was a wage-reliant worker with no health insurance
and whose family Medicaid coverage had temporarily lapsed. When Deamonte got a toothache,
his mother could not afford the $80 dental bill so he initially went untreated. By the time he
was seen the bacteria from the abscess in his rotting tooth had spread to his brain. “After two
operations and 6 weeks of hospital care, Deamonte ultimately died. It was later revealed that
Deamonte and his younger brother, DaShawn, never received dental attention at any time during
their young lives” (p. 284).
How does this story personalize the need for social justice and advocacy? What do you
think counselors can or should do when they encounter situations where a tragedy of this magnitude
may happen?
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is CESNet. E-mail is also used in counselor-to-counselor interactions as well as counselor-toclient
conversations. Websites are maintained by counseling organizations, counselor education
programs, and individual counselors (Pachis, Rettman, & Gotthoffer, 2001). For instance the
American Counseling Association’s website is www.counseling.org. There are even “
online”
professional counseling journals, the first being the Journal of Technology in Counseling
(Layne & Hohenshil, 2005; (www.jtc.colstate.edu/) and the most recent being The Professional
Counselor: Research and Practice (www.tpcjournal.nbcc.org/).
The similarities between working with certain aspects of technology (e.g., computers or
telephones) and working with clients are notable (e.g., establishing a relationship, learning a
client’s
language, learning a client’s thought process, setting goals, and taking steps to achieve
them). However, the practice is fraught with ethical and legal risks, such as (a) the issue of
confidentiality,
(b) how to handle emergency situations, (c) the lack of nonverbal information,
(d) the danger of offering online services over state judicial lines, (e) the lack of outcome research
on the effectiveness of online counseling services, (f) technology failures, and (g) the
difficulties of establishing rapport with a client who is not visually seen (Pollock, 2006; Shaw &
Shaw, 2006).
Despite drawbacks, a number of counselors and counseling-related organizations offer
services
across the Internet (e.g., suicide prevention; Befrienders International, 2007) and through
the telephone (adolescent smokers cessation help; Tedeschi, Zhu, Anderson, Cummins, &
Ribner, 2005). This trend is understandable given the fact that people are pressed for time, phone
services are readily available, and Internet use is ubiquitous.
Telephone counselors can use web technology to enhance the services they offer if they
follow guidelines adopted by the NBCC on Internet counseling (www.nbcc.org/ServiceCenter/
Ethics). Clients who may be especially well served through the use of online counseling are
those who (a) are geographically isolated, (b) are physically disabled, (c) would ordinarily not
seek counseling, and (d) are more prone to writing than speaking (Shaw & Shaw, 2006).
Competencies for counselors continue to be developed in regard to the use of technology
in therapy. These competencies include skills they should master such as being able to use word
processing programs, audiovisual equipment, e-mail, the Internet, Listservs, and CD-ROM
databases.
Although the Internet, the telephone, and other technologies will never fully replace
face-to-face counseling, clearly they are here to stay. They offer a unique experience with both
benefits and limitations (Haberstroh, Duffey, Evans, Gee, & Trepal, 2007). They require a
unique set of skills as well as personality traits, such as patience and persistence (Haberstroh,
Parr, Bradley, Morgan-Fleming, & Gee, 2008).
Cybercounseling, the practice of professional counseling and information delivery
through electronic means, usually the Internet, when clients and counselors are in separate
or remote locations, is growing as a modality by which counseling services are delivered.
It is a phenomenon occurring worldwide, for example, in South Korea as well as the United
States (Maples & Han, 2008). The Center for Credentialing and Education, an affiliate of
NBCC, now even offers a Distance Certified Counselor credential, providing national visibility
and certification for counselors delivering online services (Center for Credentialing and
Education, 2011).
Streaming video and wireless connectivity are two of the more cutting-edge technologies
that will affect how counselors function in the future (Layne & Hohenshil, 2005). Counselors
“would be wise to educate themselves on the ethical and technical issues emerging in this new
arena” (Pollock, 2006, p. 69).
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Leadership
With the rapid changes in society and counseling, there is an increased need for counselors to
develop
their leadership and planning skills. By so doing, they become a more positive and
potent
force in society. Although many counseling skills can be readily applied to effective
leadership
such as empathy, group processing, and goal setting, other “specific leadership
practices,
such as completing performance reviews, communicating compensation philosophies
and practices,
addressing colleagues’ performance problems, and being accountable for team
camaraderie and productivity, are not taught in traditional counseling programs” (Curtis &
Sherlock, 2006, p. 121). Therefore, counselors are particularly challenged in agencies and
schools to move beyond
clinical
supervision and into managerial leadership roles. In such roles
they influence “a group of individuals to achieve a goal” (p. 120). Managerial leadership is an
important topic in counseling because there is considerable evidence that “it makes a difference
in an organization’s
performance” (p. 121).
The ACA is engaged in leadership activities through working nationally and regionally
to provide training for new leaders and legislative training for counselors. Divisions within the
ACA also focus on leadership development and legislative training. Chi Sigma Iota (Counseling
Academic and Professional Honor Society International) is especially strong in providing leadership
training and services to counselors through workshops and seminars.
One area of leadership, strategic planning, involves envisioning the future and making
preparations to meet anticipated needs. Similar to the counseling skill of leading, it is usually
accomplished in a group and involves hard data as well as anticipations and expectations
(C. Kormanski, personal interview, June 20, 1994). In 2005 the ACA and 30 other counseling
groups initiated the 20/20 Future of Counseling initiative in order to map out the future of the
profession for the year 2020. By the fall of 2007, the group had agreed on seven principles that
unite the counseling profession (Kaplan & Gladding, 2011). By 2010 it has come to a consensus
definition of counseling.
Identity
Since 1952 most counselors in the United States and a number in other countries have held membership
in ACA. The composition of ACA has been mixed, “like a ball of multicolored yarn,”
and sometimes within ACA there has been an emphasis within the specialties of counseling as
opposed to the overall profession (Bradley & Cox, 2001, p. 39). Other professions, such as medicine,
have overcome the divisiveness that comes within a profession where there is more than
one professional track that practitioners can follow. ACA has not been as fortunate. Part of the
reason is that counseling has not adapted as much of a postmodern stance regarding its identity
as some other professions such as medicine (Hansen, 2010).
However, as counseling has grown stronger as a profession with more counselor education
programs that promote identity, with a stronger national professional association (ACA),
with more research literature being generated, and with more professionals who see themselves
as counselors first and foremost, its identity has become more widely accepted by the
public. Thus, the emphasis on modifying adjectives to the noun “counselor” has begun to
diminish in many cases (Myers & Sweeney, 2001). Clearly, as ACA and related organizations,
such as CACREP, NBCC, and AASCB become stronger, all counselors stand to benefit as
does the public.
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The following divisions and affiliates now operate under ACA’s structure:
1. National Career Development Association (NCDA)—founded in 1913; formerly the
National Vocational Guidance Association
2. Association for Humanistic Counseling (AHC)—founded in 1931; formerly the Student
Personnel Association for Teacher Education (SPATE), Association for Humanistic
Education and Development, and Counseling Association for Humanistic Education and
Development (CAHEAD)
3. Association for Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES)—founded in 1938;
formerly
the National Association of Guidance Supervisors and Counselor Trainers
4. American School Counselor Association (ASCA)—founded in 1953
5. American Rehabilitation Counseling Association (ARCA)—founded in 1958; formerly
the Division of Rehabilitation Counseling
6. Association for Assessment in Counseling and Education (AACE)—founded in 1965;
formerly the Association for Measurement and Evaluation in Guidance
7. National Employment Counselors Association (NECA)—founded in 1966
8. Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development (AMCD)—founded in 1972;
formerly the Association for Non-white Concerns in Personnel and Guidance
9. International Association of Addictions and Offender Counselors (IAAOC)—founded in
1972; formerly the Public Offender Counselor Association
10. Association for Specialists in Group Work (ASGW)—founded in 1973
11. Association for Spiritual, Ethical, and Religious Values in Counseling (ASERVIC)—
founded in 1974; formerly the National Catholic Guidance Conference
12. American Mental Health Counselors Association (AMHCA)—founded in 1976
13. Association for Counselors and Educators in Government (ACEG)—founded in 1984
14. Association for Adult Development and Aging (AADA)—founded in 1986
15. International Association of Marriage and Family Counselors (IAMFC)—founded in
1989
16. American College Counseling Association (ACCA)—founded in 1991
17. Association for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Issues in Counseling
(ALGBTIC)—founded in 1996
18. Counselors for Social Justice—founded in 1999
19. Association for Creativity in Counseling—founded in 2004
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Summary and Conclusion
Counseling is a distinct profession. It is concerned
with wellness, prevention, development, and situational
difficulties as well as with helping persons
with particular psychological disorders. It is based
on principles and a definition that has evolved
over the years. It contains within it a number of
specialties.
An examination of the history of counseling
shows that the profession has an interdisciplinary
base. It began with the almost simultaneous concerns
and activities of Frank Parsons, Jesse B. Davis,
and Clifford Beers to provide, reform, and improve
services in vocational guidance, character development
of school children, and mental health treatment.
Counseling became interlinked early in its history
with psychometrics, psychology, anthropology,
ethics, law, philosophy, and sociology. In addition
to the development of theory and the generation of
practical ways of working with people, important
events in the development of counseling include the
involvement of the government in counseling during
and after World War I, the Great Depression, World
War II, and the launching of Sputnik.
Ideas from innovators such as E. G. Williamson,
Carl Rogers, Gilbert Wrenn, Donald Super, Leona
Tyler, and Thomas J. Sweeney have shaped the
development
of the profession and broadened its
horizon.
The emergence and growth of the American
Counseling Association (rooted in the establishment
of the National Vocational Guidance Association in
1913) has been a major factor in the growth of the
counseling profession.
Go to Topic 10: History of Counseling, in the site (www
.MyCounselingLab.com) for Counseling: A Comprehensive Profession, Seventh Edition,
where you can:
• Find learning outcomes for History of Counseling along with the national standards that
connect to these outcomes.
• Complete Assignments and Activities that can help you more deeply understand the
chapter content.
• Apply and practice your understanding of the core skills identified in the chapter with the
Building Counseling Skills unit.
• Prepare yourself for professional certification with a Practice for Certification quiz.
• Connect to videos through the Video and Resource Library.
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1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s
ACA celebrates 50 years
as an entity in 2002;
California becomes 50th
state to establish
counselor licensure;
20/20:The Future of
Counseling helps unify
the profession; 9/11
sparks increase in focus
on trauma and crisis
counseling; wellness,
advocacy, and social
justice highlighted;
managed care,
technology in
counseling, and
managerial leadership
for counselors
emphasized
CACREP and NBCC
established; counseling
develops as a distinct
profession; APGA
becomes AACD; Chi
Sigma Iota established
by Tom Sweeney;
AASCB founded by Ted
Remley; AADA and
IAMFC chartered;
development and
multicultural counseling
emphasized
Carl Rogers advocates a
non-directive counseling
approach; World War II
– many women work
outside the home,
question traditional sex
roles; VA and GI bill
shape counseling
First certification of
counselors in New
York and Boston;
publication of Strong
Vocational Interest
Inventory
Frank Parsons writes
Choosing a Vocation;
Clifford Beers
establishes emphasis
on mental health;
Jesse B. Davis sets
up systematic school
guidance
AACD becomes
American Counseling
Association;
multicultural
competencies and
standards written;
managed care
increases; growth in
CACREP, NBCC
certifications, state
licensure laws, CSI,
and counseling
publications
Diversification of
counseling; community
counselors first
employed; American
Mental Health
Counseling Association
and four other new
divisions of APGA
formed; first counseling
licensure law passed in
Virginia; helping skills
programs established;
standards for a masters
in counseling proposed
E. G. Williamson
directive trait and
factor counseling;
John Brewer writes
Education as
Guidance; U.S.
Employment Service
established;
vocational education
enhanced through
George-Dean act
Founding of National
Vocational Guidance
Association;
Smith-Hughes Act;
World War I and
beginning of
psychometrics
Founding of APGA,
ASCA, and Division 17
(Counseling
Psychology) within APA;
passage of National
Defense Education Act
with Titles V-A and V-B
that strengthened
counseling especially in
schools; new theories
created by Albert Ellis,
Aaron Beck, Eric Berne,
Donald Super, and B. F.
Skinner
Gilbert Wrenn writes The
Counselor in a Changing
World; Vietnam War,
Civil Rights, Women’s
Rights movements
impact counseling;
humanistic theories
established; Community
Mental Health Act
passed; learning
emphasized as basis of
change by John
Krumboltz; ERIC/CAPS
created; The Counseling
Psychologist first
published
FIGURE 1.2 Development of the profession of counseling from 1900 to 2012
Challenges for the profession in the 21st century
include dealing with violence, trauma, and
crises; interacting positively with managed care
organizations;
promoting wellness; using technology
wisely and effectively; promoting social justice and
advocating for client needs; providing leadership;
and working on establishing a stronger identity for
the profession. The timeline that follows (Figure 1.2)
provides highlights in the history of counseling and
spotlights current and future issues.
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