foundation issues in Christian Education

Foundational
Issues in
Christian Education
An Introduction in
Evangelical Perspective
Third Edition
Robert W. Pazmiño
K
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
© 2008 by Robert W. Pazmiño
Published by Baker Academic
a division of Baker Publishing Group
P.O. Box 6287, Grand Rapids, MI 49516-6287
www.bakeracademic.com
Printed in the United States of America
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means—for example, electronic, photocopy, recording—without the
prior written permission of the publisher. The only exception is brief quotations in printed reviews.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Pazmiño, Robert W., 1948–
Foundational issues in Christian education : an introduction in evangelical perspective /
Robert W. Pazmiño.—3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and indexes.
ISBN 978-0-8010-3593-7 (pbk.)
1. Christian education. I. Title.
BV1471.2.P39 2008
268—dc22 2008003935
Unless otherwise indicated, Scripture quotations are from the HOLY BIBLE, NEW INTERNATIONAL
VERSION®. NIV®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 by International Bible Society. Used by permission
of Zondervan. All rights reserved.
Scripture quotations labeled NRSV are from the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copyright
© 1989, by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in
the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
7
Contents
Introduction 9
1. Biblical Foundations 19
The Old Testament 20
The New Testament 34
An Integrated Model 46
Conclusion 53
Points to Ponder 55
2. Theological Foundations 57
Four Distinctive Theological Elements 57
An Orthodox Foundation 69
A Reforming View of Education 72
Insights from Paulo Freire 77
Points to Ponder 82
3. Philosophical Foundations 85
General Definitions 85
Philosophical Questions 92
Modern Philosophies of Education 117
The Choice of Philosophies 124
A Tale of Five Cities in Global Perspective 126
Points to Ponder 128
4. Historical Foundations 129
History and Historical Method 129
History and Education 131
History and Christian Education 133
The Old Testament 136
The Greek Heritage 138
The New Testament 140
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
8 Contents
Early Christianity 142
The Middle Ages 144
The Renaissance 148
The Reformation 149
The United States 153
Postwar Evangelical Educators 158
Continuity and Reaffirmation 164
Points to Ponder 165
5. Sociological Foundations 167
The Social Construction of Reality: Culture 168
Contextualization and Decontextualization in Culture 174
The Sociology of Knowledge 176
The Sociology of Education 183
One Model for Sociological Inquiry 190
Points to Ponder 193
6. Psychological Foundations 195
Four Approaches to Integration 196
Questions of Developmental Psychology 199
Cognitive Development: Jean Piaget 204
Psychosocial Development: Erik Erikson 206
Moral Development: Lawrence Kohlberg 208
Faith Development: James Fowler 213
Neurological and Educational Research 220
Developmental Presumptions 221
An Interactive Christian Model 224
Points to Ponder 228
7. Curricular Foundations 231
Basic Questions 234
Proposed Metaphors for Curriculum 238
The Place of Values in the Explicit Curriculum 243
The Hidden Curriculum 244
The Null Curriculum 247
A Larger Vision 248
Points to Ponder 251
Appendix A: Singing the Lord’s Song in a Foreign Land—
Proclaiming Truth in a Postmodern Setting 253
Appendix B: Crossing over to Postmodernity—
Educational Invitations 263
Postscript 275
Select Bibliography 279
Scripture Index 285
General Index 289
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
9
Introduction
In commenting on the future of Christianity in 1995, the theologian Alister
McGrath saw the potential for evangelical Christians to make a contribution.
This continuing contribution relates to the viability of orthodoxy and the
need to teach a living faith for the postmodern world.1 For this to be possible,
Christians are called to be faithful in the theory and practice of Christian
education to assure the transmission of a living faith to the rising generations.
In support of this task, Christian educators are called upon to reappraise
their thought and practice in relation to the foundational issues of Christian
education. These foundational issues represent perennial or recurrent questions
for those involved in the teaching ministries of the church. They deserve
careful consideration by those who reflect upon their ministries of the past,
present, and future.
This book in its third edition explores the disciplines used to form a holistic
and integrated conception of Christian education from which guiding
principles and guidelines for practice can be drawn. Christian educators who
are evangelical in theological orientation need to make a concerted effort to
affirm the biblical insights that provide the essential authority for theory and
practice.2 Christians also need to incorporate insights from other disciplines.
1. Alister McGrath, Evangelicalism and the Future of Christianity (Downers Grove, IL:
InterVarsity, 1995); for a discussion of the postmodern setting, see the two appendixes of this
work.
2. Evangelical educators have made major contributions in this area. See the following works
as examples: Michael J. Anthony, ed., Foundations of Ministry: An Introduction to Christian
Education for a New Generation (Wheaton: Victor Books, 1992); Perry G. Downs, Teaching for
Spiritual Growth: An Introduction to Christian Education (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1994);
Ronald Habermas and Klaus Issler, Teaching for Reconciliation: Foundations and Practice of
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
10 Introduction
Such incorporation, however, is subject to the continuing authority of God’s
Word as found in Scripture. By critically exploring the various foundations
that have been and are predominant in Christian thought, educators can better
deal with current needs and future challenges.
Christian educators have been conscious of the need to balance concerns
for both continuity and change. Continuity is affirmed in emphasizing essential
biblical truths that have guided the Christian faith and educational
ministries throughout the centuries. Change is affirmed in emphasizing the
need for applying theological truths in relation to specific historical, cultural,
social, and personal variables. This effort requires careful reappraisal of biblical
and theological sources, as well as evaluation of the various trends that
are confronting the wider society and world.
In exploring these areas, it is appropriate to pose questions that have continuing
significance in Christian education. A European educator once confronted
an educator from the United States with the observation that “American educators
are always raising questions and never answering them.” In response to
this remark, the educator from the United States asked yet another question,
“Is that so?” To avoid this real danger, we must propose possible answers to
the questions that are raised for consideration.
It is crucial that foundational questions be raised by Christian educators
before they form a set theory and practice of Christian education. Raising
these questions enables Christian educators to explore new possibilities
and to consider “new wineskins” for Christian education. Through such
exploration, persons concerned with education in various settings can identify
principles and implications for practice.3 The process by which various
educational questions are raised in relation to foundations, principles, and
practice is suggested by Denis Lawton, who outlines these areas in relation
to a systems diagram (see fig. 1).4
At each point in the process, thought and practice are subject to the continuing
authority of God’s written Word. The Bible is a critical instrument
that discerns and judges the educator, the educatee, and the educational
process.5 By exploring biblical and theological foundations first, Christian
educators can affirm transcultural universals that may then guide all
Christian Education Ministry (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1992); and Jim Wilhoit, Christian Education
and the Search for Meaning, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1991).
3. For insights into the division of foundations, principles, and practices, see Émile Durkheim,
Education and Sociology (New York: Free Press, 1956).
4. Denis Lawton, Class, Culture, and Curriculum (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1975),
85–87.
5. Hebrews 4:12 and 2 Timothy 3:16 affirm this critical and evaluative function of God’s
written Word.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
Introduction 11
educational conceptions and efforts. The consideration of biblical and theological
foundations can also serve to identify distinctive assumptions that
Christians bring to their thought and practice of education. The consideration
of philosophical foundations also assists the educator in specifying cultural
universals in the purposes of education and the nature of knowledge. Transcultural
and cultural universals are elements of continuity, less subject to
change and various contingencies, though not exempt from interpretation
in each educational setting.
The second step in the educational process involves the investigation of
cultural variables through the disciplines of history and sociology, or anthropology.
This step provides the Christian educator with a sense of his or her
location in time and space. Cultural variables give the educator a sense of
context, though cultural variables are more subject to the variations of time
and space. Yet these cultural and subcultural variables are no less the concern
of the Christian educator who seeks to contextualize her or his educational
efforts. Thus the Christian educator endeavors to make the universal and
transcultural truths of God’s revelation real to those participating in the
educational event. The educator seeks to so know, understand, and love
students that her or his teaching speaks directly to the students’ needs and
concerns. This, of course, does not exclude the educator’s role as one who
raises critical questions and provides perspectives unknown to the students.
But some sense of one’s location in time, space, and society is crucial for
faithful educational practice.
Transcultural/Cultural
Universals
(Biblical, Theological,
and Philosophical Foundations)
Cultural Variables
(Historical and Sociological
Foundations)
Personal and Group Variables
(Psychological Foundations)
Educational Content
(Curricular Foundations)
Educational Principles
Educational Practice
Figure 1
Foundations, Principles, and Practices
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
12 Introduction
Beyond the questions of cultural universals and variables, the educator is
confronted with individuals to whom she or he is responsible. The Christian
educator needs to consider psychological foundations in order to discern
the personal and group variables that influence education. In particular, the
students or those being educated who are present and involved, voluntarily
or involuntarily, must be considered. Also, educators are responsible to
parents, administrators, boards, peers, pastors, and a host of other persons
and groups, depending on the context of service. Psychological foundations
provide insights to understand how persons develop, learn, and interact
with others. Insights are also derived from sociological foundations for
understanding how the teacher herself or himself relates and interacts with
a variety of other persons, groups, and structures endemic to educational
settings, whether in the home, the school, the church, or the community.
The impact of sociological factors on psychological foundations indicates
the interactions of the various dimensions of the educational process, as
well as the potential limitations of a strictly systemic or analytical view of
education. The diagramming of the system and process in figure 1 should
include several connecting lines between each of the steps to reflect the complexity
of the relationships. Additional lines could also be drawn to note
the feedback from actual educational practices to the various foundations
and their issues.
An additional step in the proposed model involves questions of educational
content, the organized knowledge shared in Christian education. This step
identifies the Christian heritage that will be shared with the persons and groups
assembled. This living heritage draws on sources from the various foundations
already identified in the model to form a curriculum. Curricular concerns
at this point are organization of knowledge and identification of values and
skills to be passed on from one generation or group to the next. In our current
situation, questions of curriculum include the exposure of students to new
knowledge and skills required for participation in a rapidly changing society.
The inclusion of computer competency units in elementary and secondary
schools is one example of curricular concern, given the impact of technology.
Another curricular concern is the need for biblical and theological literacy in
the Christian community.
Finally, the Christian educator needs to state educational principles that
have been culled from the various foundations and then apply those principles
to actual educational practices. A careful exploration of foundations is essential
before one can specify principles and guidelines for practice. Too often,
foundational questions have been ignored or the answers to such questions
have been assumed in addressing the tyranny of urgent pressures in churches,
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
Introduction 13
homes, schools, and other ministry settings. While these fifth and sixth steps
are not the focus of this text, suggestions are made in these areas for the
reader’s consideration.6
The entire educational process, though discussed in terms of a system, is
subject to numerous contingencies that suggest Christian education combines
aspects of an art, as well as of a science. The Christian educator is called upon to
creatively combine and integrate insights from various disciplines in the thought
and practice of education. This artful integration includes disciplines beyond
those identified in this book as foundations for Christian education. Educational
thought and practice have incorporated insights from such diverse studies as fine
and applied arts, economics, political science, life sciences, physical sciences,
systems theory, management theory, engineering, and mathematics. This reality
supports the proposition that all truth is God’s truth. The Christian educator
can incorporate God’s truth wherever it may be revealed in the created world
in ways that reflect on humanity’s God-given creativity.
In discussing Christian education, one readily becomes conscious of its “preparadigmatic”
character.7 Thomas Kuhn has suggested this term to describe
an area of study or academic discipline that has not developed a paradigm—a
dominant and widely accepted understanding, framework, or concept that
serves to guide all thought and practice. In the physical and biological sciences,
it is possible to identify dominant paradigms.8 In the case of the social sciences
and education, it is more difficult to identify a dominant paradigm that guides
all thought and practice, in part because the subjects for study in the social
sciences and education are human beings. Human beings are infinitely more
complex than physical, chemical, and biological processes. From a Christian
theistic perspective, one can also affirm this complexity because persons are
created in the very image of God. Each person is unique, and exceptions can
be cited for any given paradigm or model.
This preparadigmatic stage of Christian education, which by virtue of
persons’ created nature may be a perennial one, implies that any educational
6. For a focus on steps 5 and 6, see Robert W. Pazmiño, Principles and Practices of Christian
Education: An Evangelical Perspective (1992; Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2002), which is
a companion volume to this work.
7. Robert A. Drovdahl has raised appropriate questions about characterizing Christian
education as preparadigmatic. See “Toward a Paradigmatic Christian Education,” Christian
Education Journal 11 (Spring 1991): 7–16. From my perspective, his pursuit of settledness and
a paradigm may limit the place of freedom and creativity, but his pursuit of a framework for
Christian education is to be affirmed. The pursuit of a framework and form results in an educational
approach rather than a paradigm.
8. See Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1970), 10–51.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
14 Introduction
conception or practice remains incomplete and subject to renewal and change.
This is due in part to the nature of persons with their unlimited potential
for good as well as evil. The realization of this potential depends on the
Christian educator’s relationship with God and the extent to which he or she
follows God in educational thought and practice. Thus a major challenge
facing Christian educators is to be faithful, obedient, and creative in their
thought and practice. By drawing on various resources, Christian educators
are further challenged to develop an integrated understanding of Christian
education that will guide practice. To ignore this challenge is to potentially be
victimized by a mindless effort that fails to give glory to God. An affirmation
of the preparadigmatic character of Christian education also acknowledges
the creation of space for the surprising and gracious work of the Holy Spirit
in any educational approach or design.
The preparadigmatic stage of Christian education requires that each new
generation of Christian educators reconsider the foundational questions.
Without raising these questions, Christian educators are likely to perpetuate
antiquated conceptions and practices that are not faithful to the gospel; to
be captive to a culture devoid of significant impact; and to be unresponsive to
what the Holy Spirit is saying. Whereas this task is the particular responsibility
of those professionally called to Christian education at various levels, the
people of God as a whole must recognize their accountability for the direction
and quality of Christian education in churches, homes, schools, communities,
and societies. A lack of commitment to foundational issues results in limited
possibilities for present and future generations.
The chapters in this book are organized to suggest a relationship in the
order of the educational foundations as they appear in pairs. In an evangelical
tradition, priority is given to the biblical and theological foundations as
they provide normative categories for the theory and practice of education.
These foundations are discussed in chapters 1 and 2. The philosophical and
historical foundations, explored in chapters 3 and 4, are also often paired
because their mutuality and complementarity support the task of integration
in forming an understanding and appreciation of educational practice within
distinct contexts. This is the case because philosophies and histories vary over
time and place, and conjoint study fosters the discovery of connections. Also,
both sociological and psychological foundations, the topics of chapters 5 and
6, are linked as social sciences that have been readily drawn upon in the field
of education. Their interrelationship is noted in the discussion of a systems
analysis of the various foundations. Finally, curricular foundations in chapter
7 serve as a bridge from wrestling with foundational issues to applying the
actual principles for and practices of education. Additional relationships
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
Introduction 15
can be suggested to weave together the various foundational issues explored
here, but these vary with the educational approach and rationale embraced
by Christian educators.
The rationale for the first and subsequent editions of this book is captured
in the wisdom shared by the Jewish educator Abraham J. Heschel, who said,
“Thinking without roots will bear flowers but no fruits.”9 Christians must
think about Christian education if they are to faithfully bear fruit in their
practice. The consideration of the roots of Christian education calls for careful
attention to the foundations that we draw upon. A good theory that emerges
from grappling with foundational issues will well serve those engaged in the
practice of Christian education in a wide variety of settings. A good theory
enables those who teach to see, analyze, and respond to educational tasks in
creative and faithful ways.
This work is written from a bicultural North American Hispanic perspective.
The author is also an ecumenical evangelical Christian in theological
persuasion. For many this may pose an irreconcilable tension. First, Hispanics
have generally been associated with Central and South America and the
Caribbean rather than with North America.10 Second, ecumenical Christians
are generally viewed as not being those who identify themselves as evangelical.
Nevertheless, it is from the ecumenical vantage point that I address the current
and enduring challenges of Christian education. My distinctive identity
and perspective have enabled me to draw from diverse sources in my thought
and practice.
This work is intended to be an introductory textbook for upper-level college
and seminary courses. Its approach draws heavily on secondary sources
to provide a wide exposure for students. My hope is that students will be
encouraged to explore the references provided for further study. Although
the primary audiences for this work are persons of evangelical persuasion,
it is also intended to engage the wider ecumenical community of religious
educators.
I wish to thank those communities and individuals who have made this
book possible through their nurture and those who have used the first and
second editions. I am grateful to Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary, which
I have known both as a student and as a faculty member for five years. The
students in the courses I have taught have challenged me to consider various
9. Samuel H. Dresner, ed., I Asked for Wonder: A Spiritual Anthology, Abraham Joshua
Heschel (New York: Crossword, 1995), 83.
10. For a discussion of the Hispanic heritage and developments in Latin America as related
to Christian education, see Robert W. Pazmiño, Latin American Journey: Insights for Christian
Education in North America (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2002).
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
16 Introduction
aspects of Christian education and to develop my thoughts. I am also grateful
to Andover Newton Theological School, which has supported my calling to
serve a multicultural and theologically diverse church and world over these
past twenty years. I also appreciate the fellowships and congregations that
have supported and guided me throughout my ministry.
I am indebted to the friends who patiently typed and edited the original
manuscript and those colleagues who fostered the process of writing through
their feedback and reviews. In particular, I thank Virginia Steadman and
Deborah Perkins for their service on earlier editions.
My greatest appreciation goes to my family, immediate and extended,
who have loved and encouraged me in the midst of my work. My parents,
Laura and Albert Pazmiño, always believed in me and modeled the Christian
life. My children, David and Rebekah by birth and Larisa by marriage,
along with my grandson, Oliver, have always challenged me to be a better
teacher and model in our home. Finally, I thank my wife, Wanda, for being
a close companion and friend throughout the joys and struggles of my
pilgrimage.
A Note on the Third Edition
Foundational issues in Christian education are raised in the changing contours
of societal landscapes. Since the writing of the second edition of this
work, postmodernism has emerged as a movement influencing educational
thought and practices. The appendix to the second edition subtitled “Proclaiming
Truth in a Postmodern Setting” noted one part of a Christian response
to postmodern trends in emphasizing the search for truth that undergirds all
educational efforts. The appendix to a subsequent work, God Our Teacher:
Theological Basics in Christian Education,11 noted the other part of a Christian
response in emphasizing the stance of love. This second appendix was titled
“Crossing Over to Postmodernity: Educational Invitations.” (Both appendixes
are included in this third edition.) The holistic Christian response calls
for living and speaking the truth in love. This third edition of Foundational
Issues reexamines the roots of Christian thinking on education, honoring
a second nugget of wisdom penned by Abraham Heschel: “Religion begins
with a question and theology with a problem.”12 This third edition explores
11. Robert W. Pazmiño, God Our Teacher: Theological Basics in Christian Education (Grand
Rapids: Baker Academic, 2001).
12. Reuven Kimelman, “Abraham Joshua Heschel: Our Generation’s Teacher in Honor of the
Tenth Yahrzeit,” Religion and Intellectual Life 2 (Winter 1985): 17.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
Introduction 17
educational questions and problems from the perspective of the Christian
faith. Postmodernism emerges as an additional educational philosophy or
impulse noted in chapter 3. Despite the questions that postmodernism raises
about the possibility of enduring foundations, the examination of the roots
of educational thoughts and practices is essential. Such reexamination in this
third edition honors the distinctive elements of Christian revelation and faith
while actively engaging the task of loving God with all of our minds. This is
the responsibility and privilege of all Christians who teach today and in the
years to come. Each chapter of this third edition was updated, clarified, and
reviewed in the process of reexamining foundational issues while maintaining
the basic structure of earlier editions. Each chapter includes questions for
personal reflection or classroom use under “Points to Ponder.”
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
19
1
Biblical Foundations
To think responsibly about and practice education from a distinctly evangelical
theological position, Christians, and in particular Christian educators,
must carefully examine the biblical foundations for Christian education.
Scripture is the essential source for understanding distinctively Christian
elements in education. Therefore, it is crucial that the Christian educator’s
thoughts and practices be guided by God’s revealed truths as he or she seeks
to be obedient to Christ in the task of education. Christians are subject to a
confusing plurality of educational theories in contemporary society. In such
a situation, the exploration of biblical foundations provides an essential
standard for judging education. The examination of these foundations does
not result in a sterile or rigid theory and practice, devoid of diversity and
creativity. Rather, Christian education patterned on biblical foundations
provides for a dynamic and diverse educational experience.
Several foundations can be identified in both the Old and the New Testaments.
These biblical sources provide models or approaches even at the basic level of
a commonsense reading of the text. All educators have models or approaches
that guide their thought and practice. In most cases, these models remain unexamined.
The challenge for Christians is to examine their models for education,
to make them explicit, and to undergird them with biblical foundations. The
models suggested by various biblical foundations provide guides with which to
consider past, present, and future educational efforts. What follows is a sampling
of foundations that must be elaborated by educators in various settings, making
use of more extensive critical, canonical, and contextual studies.1
1. Gabriel Fackre in The Christian Story: A Pastoral Systematics (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
1987), 157–210, identifies four senses of Scripture: common, critical, canonical, and
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
20 Foundational Issues in Christian Education
The Old Testament
The Old Testament provides a wide variety of historical and communal
settings in which to explore the nature of teaching and learning within the
faith community. The work of the Latin American educator Matías Preiswerk
is particularly insightful in identifying the various agents who were engaged
in education. They included prophets, priests and Levites, wise persons or
sages, scribes and rabbis, along with the people themselves as a nation. Each
educational agent had a distinct purpose, content, method, and institutional
expression as summarized in table 1 below.2
Table 1
Education in the Old Testament
Focus on the Educational Agents
People
Nation
Prophet Priest
Levites
“The Wise”
Wise Persons
Sage
Scribe-Teacher
Rabbi “Doctor
of the Law”
Purpose
Popular
Liberation
Realize
Liberation
Transmit the
Tradition
A Better Life Interpret the
Sacred Scriptures
(Ezra
7:6, 10)
Content
Historical
Events
Anticipatory
Historical
Perspectives
Religious
Practices
Laws
Advice for
Daily Living
Theological
Commentaries
Method
Memory
Popular
Culture
Word
Symbolic
Actions
The Torah: Its
Celebration,
Transmission,
Explanation,
and Application
Popular
Wisdom
Instruction
Institution
Nation
Itself
Community
Schools of
Prophets
The Temple Occasionally
the Court of
King, Queen
Synagogue
Beyond this summary, it is instructive to consider the particular emphases
in major portions of the Hebrew Scripture, or Old Testament. The book of
Deuteronomy stresses passing on the basic content and norms essential for the
contextual. This discussion is largely limited to the common sense, recognizing that evangelical
constituencies make varied use of critical, canonical, and contextual insights. For further
inquiry in this area, see Mary C. Boys, Biblical Interpretation in Religious Education (Birmingham,
AL: Religious Education Press, 1980); for a good example of the fruits of canonical
work, see Walter Brueggemann, The Creative Word: Canon as a Model for Biblical Education
(Philadelphia: Fortress, 1982).
2. See Matías Preiswerk, Educating in the Living Word: A Theoretical Framework for Christian
Education (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1987), 50–66.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
Biblical Foundations 21
life of the faith community. Walter Brueggemann identifies this component
of the Old Testament canon as the ethos of the Torah, the disclosure of that
which is binding upon the faith community.3 In the Christian faith community,
the evangelical heritage has stressed the transmission of these basics.
Instruction in traditional and accepted ways or heritage provides continuity
across the generations, especially in times of transition and change.4 The
transformation made possible by the recovery of this heritage is described
in Psalm 78 and the book of Nehemiah. New life and joy are experienced
by the entire nation in returning to the source of their faith. The Wisdom
literature embodies how the norms of faith relate to particular questions and
issues of the day. Wisdom is required to relate faith demands to particular
contexts. The counsel of wise persons guides the connection of faith to
life. Brueggemann identifies this component of the Old Testament canon as
logos, the discernment of practical wisdom for life that provides meaning
and order.5 Finally, the words of the prophets explore the social dimension
of faith and decry breaches in faithfulness both within and beyond the faith
community. The prophets are the social educators of their times, and they
disclose the passion of God with their timely words that confront and hopefully
heal the nation and its leaders. Brueggemann calls this portion of the
canon pathos, which brings disruption to the life of the faith community or
nation in the service of justice and righteousness.6 One additional element
identified and not emphasized by Brueggemann, but of significance for the
formation of faith, is the place of doxology, the place of praise and joy that
denotes the embrace of believers by God and their embrace of God.7 Each of
these portions of Scripture is instructive for educational thought and practice
in contemporary contexts.
The Book of Deuteronomy
Within the Torah, the book of Deuteronomy stands out as one that outlines
the norms for the faith community to follow and teach to the rising generations.
In Deuteronomy 6:1–2, 4–9, Moses is described as exhorting the people of
Israel to remember God’s activities in their history, to teach God’s commands,
and, above all, to love, fear, and serve God:
3. Brueggemann, Creative Word, 13, 108. He uses Jeremiah 18:18 as the key text for his
analysis of the Old Testament canon.
4. The stress on the norms of orthodoxy is one distinctive of evangelical Christians. Other
distinctives are explored in chap. 2.
5. Brueggemann, Creative Word, 13, 108–9.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid., 117.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
22 Foundational Issues in Christian Education
These are the commands, decrees and laws the Lord your God directed me to
teach you to observe in the land that you are crossing the Jordan to possess, so
that you, your children and their children after them may fear the Lord your
God as long as you live by keeping all his decrees and commands that I give you,
and so that you may enjoy long life.
Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is one. Love the Lord your
God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength. These
commandments that I give you today are to be upon your hearts. Impress them
on your children. Talk about them when you sit at home and when you walk
along the road, when you lie down and when you get up. Tie them as symbols
on your hands and bind them on your foreheads. Write them on the doorframes
of your houses and on your gates.
Moses’s teaching called the believing community to relate their faith in God
to all of life. This passage from Deuteronomy provides insights about the goals,
the teacher, the student, the content, and the setting of biblical education.8
The educational mandate of Deuteronomy 6:4–9 requires passing on the
commandments of God to the next generation. Its ultimate goal is to foster
the love of God expressed in loyalty and obedience. To love God is to answer
to a unique claim (6:4), to be obedient (11:1–22; 30:20), to keep God’s commandments
(10:12; 11:1, 22; 19:9), to heed them and to hear God’s voice (11:13;
30:16), and to serve (10:12; 11:1, 13). In each of these passages, the word love
refers to obedience from the heart involving all of one’s being.9 Jesus echoes
this relationship between love and obedience in John 14:15: “If you love me,
you will obey what I command.”
The love of God is expressed in obedience to God’s commandments and
in giving oneself wholly (heart, soul, mind, and strength). Teaching is to be
incisive in challenging hearers to such a total life response to God characterized
by heartfelt devotion. This teaching was the particular responsibility of
parents, yet this goal has significance for all forms of education.
In the ultimate sense, God is the teacher in biblical education. God is the
author and discloser of all truth, and both teachers and students alike stand
under this truth. God calls teachers and students to understand, grow in, and
obey God’s revealed Word. In this passage and throughout the biblical record,
teachers are responsible as stewards and proclaimers of God’s truth. This truth
can be communicated in a variety of ways, always involving a relational dimension.
A relationship of love, trust, openness, honesty, acceptance, caring, support,
8. For these insights, I am indebted to the work of Timothy C. Tennent, “Personal Philosophy
of Christian Education” (unpublished student paper, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary,
1984).
9. Ibid.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
Biblical Foundations 23
forgiveness, correction, and affirmation is to characterize interactions between
teachers and students.10 Teachers, like parents, are called upon to model the
love of God, which they hope to encourage students to follow.
Through the teaching and example of the teacher, the student is called to
understanding, growth, and obedience in relation to God’s revealed Word.
While the teacher is encouraged to diligently and incisively teach, it is assumed
that the student will be open and willing to receive this instruction.
Other passages of Scripture, in particular the book of Proverbs, provide clear
injunctions for children to be attentive to the instruction of their parents. The
teachers in the context of Jewish life were primarily the parents, and Deuteronomy
6 therefore focuses on this primary role. But this perspective has
implications for other educational relationships beyond the home, as was the
case in postexilic synagogue schools.
The essential content of biblical education in Deuteronomy 6 is the commandments,
decrees, and laws of God that Moses was directed to teach. But
this content is vitally related to the whole of life. The content of God’s revelation
is to be taught or impressed upon students, to be talked about at various
times, to be tied and bound upon one’s body, and to be written in public and
readily observed locations. Truth is to be integrated into all of life and is to
affect the moment-to-moment and day-to-day existence of the people of God.
This content is both foundational and radical. It is foundational in providing
the basic truth and structure on which all else must be built. It is radical in
providing the roots from which all life is nourished or affected. Thus both
stability and growth are assured to the extent that the content of education
is based on God’s revelation.
The setting for teaching described in this passage includes all those situations
in which parents can impress upon their children the commandments
of God. There are various occasions when this is to be done: when sitting at
home, when walking along the road, when lying down, and when getting up.
God’s commandments are to be present even as symbols on people’s hands and
foreheads and the doorframes of houses and gates. The whole of life provides
situations in which persons can be discipled and nurtured in the ways of God,
recognizing that God is the ultimate teacher for humanity.
The primary focus in Deuteronomy 6 is parents and their essential role in
education. Despite the multiplicity of educational influences today, parents are
still the primary educators who actively or passively determine what influences
their children. The challenge is for the Christian church to equip parents for
10. Lawrence O. Richards, A Theology of Christian Education (Grand Rapids: Zondervan,
1975), 314.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
24 Foundational Issues in Christian Education
their roles as ministers and educators in their homes and to assist them in the
choice of other educational influences in the lives of their children. Parents
need the support and guidance of leaders in their faith communities.
In Deuteronomy 6, Moses exhorts the people of Israel to remember and
to teach. The context for this teaching is the home, in which persons learn to
relate their faith in God to all of life. Because of the contemporary tendency
to compartmentalize life, faith is often relegated to those limited occasions
when one is involved in church-related activities, typically confined to a few
hours on Sunday mornings. The book of Deuteronomy demonstrates that
faith in God is related to all of life. Wherever faithful persons interact, there
is an occasion for Christian education—provided this interaction is deliberate,
systematic, and sustained.11
Education entails conscious planning, implementing, and evaluating of
educational experiences. Intentionality in Christian education involves the
effort to share biblical content, to grapple with its implications for life, and
to suggest avenues for appropriate response. A similar point is emphasized in
James 2:14–17. This approach has been advocated by Lawrence O. Richards,
whose conceptions have clarified the place of nonformal and informal aspects
of education.12 Richards largely depends on a socialization or enculturation
model for education that focuses on education for life.13
Richards assumes that the values of formal education will be implicitly addressed
in the Christian community; however, it is clear that these values must
be planned in educational ministries that enable persons to move beyond a
community norm, in a prophetic sense, as well as nurturing them in the ways
of a particular community. Prophetic education calls persons and communities
to be accountable to biblical norms and demands at points where sin,
injustice, and oppression are evident, where the life of the home or nurturing
community is critiqued rather than affirmed. These two foci—affirmation
and critique—are patterned after the blessings and warnings of God’s covenant
(see Deuteronomy 27–28) with all humanity. These foci are implied in
Deuteronomy 6, which emphasizes attentiveness to God’s commands and
parental instruction.
Affirmation and critique are as essential in today’s contexts as they were in
biblical times. Thus, while a family or community may faithfully pass on to
11. These terms for describing education are explored in chap. 3 when the definition of
education is considered. See also Lawrence A. Cremin, Traditions of American Education (New
York: Basic Books, 1977), 134–45.
12. For a complete discussion of the content-implications-response sequence, see Lawrence O.
Richards, Creative Bible Teaching (Chicago: Moody, 1970).
13. Richards’s conceptions are elaborated in his Theology of Christian Education.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
Biblical Foundations 25
the next generation the truth of God through its socialization and enculturation
processes, this transmission may also at key points need correction and
reorientation. Formal education can often serve as a vehicle for correction and
reorientation of the efforts of a particular home or community. Likewise, a
particular home or community may minister to an agency of formal education,
such as when parents take an active role in the policies and goals of a
Sunday, private, or public school.
Deuteronomy 30–32 also provides essential insights for understanding the
nature of Christian education. Jesus himself is reported to have made repeated
reference to the book of Deuteronomy during his wilderness temptations.14 In
the current educational wilderness of a plurality of educational philosophies,
Christian educators can likewise gain strength and clarity by considering the
insights offered from the following three passages in Deuteronomy: 30:11–20;
31:9–13; and 31:30–32:4. The education described in these passages comes to
its full fruition in the life and ministry of Jesus Christ.
Deuteronomy 30:11–20: Finding Life. Deuteronomy 30:11–20 clarifies some
of the issues at stake in current Christian education efforts. This passage records
a covenant renewal challenge given to the people of Israel and describes
the curses or warnings that result from disobedience of God:
Now what I am commanding you today is not too difficult for you or beyond
your reach. It is not up in heaven, so that you have to ask, “Who will ascend
into heaven to get it and proclaim it to us so we may obey it?” Nor is it beyond
the sea, so that you have to ask, “Who will cross the sea to get it and proclaim
it to us so we may obey it?” No, the word is very near you; it is in your mouth
and in your heart so you may obey it.
See, I set before you today life and prosperity, death and destruction. For I
command you today to love the Lord your God, to walk in his ways, and to
keep his commands, decrees and laws; then you will live and increase, and the
Lord your God will bless you in the land you are entering to possess.
But if your heart turns away and you are not obedient, and if you are drawn
away to bow down to other gods and worship them, I declare to you this day
that you will certainly be destroyed. You will not live long in the land you are
crossing the Jordan to enter and possess.
This day I call heaven and earth as witnesses against you that I have set
before you life and death, blessings and curses. Now choose life, so that you
and your children may live and that you may love the Lord your God, listen
to his voice, and hold fast to him. For the Lord is your life, and he will give
you many years in the land he swore to give to your fathers, Abraham, Isaac
and Jacob.
14. See Matthew 4:1–11 and Luke 4:1–13.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
26 Foundational Issues in Christian Education
Christian educators are to make clear God’s offer of life or death. Christian
education is one of the church’s ministries that seek to encourage persons of
all ages to choose life—the spiritual life found in Jesus Christ for the Christian
church. Choosing life requires loving, listening to, and holding fast to God.
This choice is imperative because God is the source of life, a truth echoed in
1 John 5:12: “He who has the Son has life; he who does not have the Son of
God does not have life.” Christian education entails sharing knowledge of
and encouraging a response to God that results in life.
Deuteronomy 31:9–13: The Word of God and Human Response. Deuteronomy
31:9–13 emphasizes the importance of reading and hearing God’s
Law. This passage records the sabbatical legal renewal of God’s covenant
with God’s people:
So Moses wrote down this law and gave it to the priests, the sons of Levi, who
carried the ark of the covenant of the Lord, and to all the elders of Israel. Then
Moses commanded them: “At the end of every seven years, in the year for canceling
debts, during the Feast of Tabernacles, when all Israel comes to appear
before the Lord your God at the place he will choose, you shall read the law
before them in their hearing. Assemble the people—men, women and children,
and the aliens living in your towns—so they can listen and learn to fear the Lord
your God and follow carefully all the words of this law. Their children, who do
not know this law, must hear it and learn to fear the Lord your God as long as
you live in the land you are crossing the Jordan to possess.”
Those addressed are to listen, learn to reverence God, and follow carefully
in God’s ways. God’s Law is a trust, a heritage that is to be shared not only
with adults but also with children and youth in the community of faith. These
formal and legal arrangements are finally fulfilled and transcended in the
new covenant. From the perspective of the New Testament, the importance
of God’s Law is extended to all of Scripture (2 Tim. 3:14–17). God’s Word
provides the essential content for teaching. Christian education can be further
distinguished by the focus on God’s revelation as expressed in the Old and
New Testaments. God’s Word is to be passed on from generation to generation
with the intent of fostering a response of faithfulness on the part of the
hearers. The authority of God’s Word is understood within the community
of faith, the church of the living God, which is described as the “pillar and
foundation of the truth” (1 Tim. 3:15). With this understanding, educators
must submit any private interpretations of Scripture to the shared wisdom of
the church in both its historical and present expressions.
Deuteronomy 31:30–32:4a: Fostering Liberation and Facilitating Worship.
Deuteronomy 31:30–32:4a provides a description of education in Old
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
Biblical Foundations 27
Testament times. This passage is an unusual introduction to a long poetic
curse upon the nation that is followed by the promise of restoration:
And Moses recited the words of this song from beginning to end in the hearing
of the whole assembly of Israel:
Listen, O heavens and I will speak;
hear, O earth, the words of my mouth.
Let my teaching fall like rain
and my words descend like dew,
like showers on new grass,
like abundant rain on tender plants.
I will proclaim the name of the Lord.
Oh, praise the greatness of our God!
He is the Rock, his words are perfect,
and all his ways are just.
This passage describes an education that liberates persons to grow and be
refreshed in God. It is also an education that encourages them to celebrate,
to attribute worth to God. It liberates in the sense of enabling persons to be
and become all that God has intended them to be as God’s creatures and
as members of the covenant community. The threat of curse along with the
anticipation of blessing were opportunities for learning. Such a liberating
education requires the effectual working of God to restore persons and groups
so that they can reflect God’s image in their lives, just as rain and dew restore
and renew plant life in a desert. Liberation is the empowerment to be and become
all that God intended persons to be by the Creator’s continual care and
transformation of individuals, communities, and societies.15 This liberation
includes the denouncement of sin, along with the announcement of forgiveness
and reconciliation. Christian education is characterized by teaching and
learning that result in the liberation of persons. Jesus affirms this emphasis in
John 8:31b–32: “If you hold to my teaching, you are really my disciples. Then
you will know the truth, and the truth will set you free.”
The education described in Deuteronomy 31:30–32:4a also entails celebration.
It is celebration in the sense of encouraging participants to praise, adore,
and glorify God. God is praised for God’s gracious activity, care, providence,
judgment, justice, and righteousness. Participants in this educational event
are called by Moses to recognize their utter dependence on God and to respond
with obedience to divine demands in all spheres of human activity.
15. See Exodus 6:6–8 for a description of liberation as God worked in the life experience
of the nation of Israel.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
28 Foundational Issues in Christian Education
Therefore, in addition to liberation, celebration is an outcome of education
that is biblical in character.
The life and ministry of Jesus is the fullest expression of the nature of
education described in these passages from Deuteronomy. Christ is the life,
the Word Incarnate, and the ultimate source for liberation and celebration.
Jesus Christ is the life (John 14:6), the bread of life (John 6:35), and the resurrection
and the life (John 11:25). He comes to offer everlasting life to all who
believe in him (John 3:16, 36; 1 John 5:12). Jesus Christ as the Word Incarnate
(John 1:1–18) fulfills God’s Law (Matt. 5:17–20). In Christ there is the fullest
realization of liberation (John 8:31–36) and the occasion for celebration
(John 15:9–11). His discipling ministry with the twelve disciples provides a
model for the kind of education that affects the total life of participants.16
More than just imparting content as revealed truth, Jesus shared his very
life with his disciples as the Word Incarnate. This sharing of life then issues
in life for those who respond in faith to God’s disclosure.
What possible educational implications can be drawn from consideration
of these biblical foundations from the book of Deuteronomy?17 Several can
be suggested in relation to the need for reform in local church education using
the categories suggested above. Other implications might be suggested in
relation to education in various settings, but our focus is on the implications
as they relate to the local church. Such implications emerge from a commonsense
reading of the Scripture that must be evaluated in relation to the other
foundational considerations explored in subsequent chapters of this work.
From Deuteronomy 30:11–20—“Finding Life”—the following implications
can be suggested:
1. Reemphasize the evangelistic functions of Sunday school and other
educational programs of the local church.
16. For an insightful description of Jesus’s teaching ministry, see these classic works: A. B.
Bruce, The Training of the Twelve (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1971); and Herman H. Horne, The
Teaching Techniques of Jesus (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1920). A more recent work is Joseph A.
Grassi, Teaching the Way: Jesus, the Early Church, and Today (Washington, DC: University
Press of America, 1982).
17. One can raise the question of how one moves from biblical texts to educational or
ministerial implications. This assumes that educators are dealing with the authority for teaching,
which is the subject of Robert W. Pazmiño, By What Authority Do We Teach? Sources for
Empowering Christian Educators (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2002). But, basically, in moving
from biblical texts to implications, one moves through one’s experiences and reflections as
prayerfully enlightened by the work of the Holy Spirit in illuminating the texts. In this process,
one interacts with the experiences and reflections of other Christians, but no easy formula exists
for such a journey to acquire wisdom, which is a lifelong task. Teaching becomes incarnated as
truth through the person of the teacher.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
Biblical Foundations 29
2. Train Sunday school teachers and adult participants in areas of evangelization
and follow-up.
3. Explore the possibilities of classes and Bible study groups geared to
those inquiring about the Christian faith.
4. Pray for and anticipate decisions for a life commitment to Jesus Christ
as Sovereign and Savior.
From Deuteronomy 31:9–13—“The Word of God and Human Response”—
the following implications emerge:
1. Develop and work toward goals of biblical literacy for all age groups.
2. Evaluate and select curriculum that is Bible centered and comprehensive
in dealing with the whole counsel of God.
3. Relate biblical themes to contemporary life and help students in all
educational programs to grapple with the implications of biblical truth
for their response in the world.
Deuteronomy 31:30–32:4—“Fostering Liberation and Facilitating Worship”—
suggests the following implications:
1. Maximize the active participation of everyone in educational programs.
Complement action with time for serious thought and reflection in
dialogue with others.
2. Raise questions concerning distinctive Christian lifestyles in a pluralistic
society. Ask, What does it mean to affirm Christ’s lordship in various
areas of life?
3. Consciously rely on the renewing work of the Holy Spirit in the lives
of individuals, groups, and structures.
4. Work toward the coordination of education programs with the themes
and emphases of weekly corporate worship.
5. Prepare children and youth for and expose them to corporate worship.
Provide assistance for parents in this area of preparation.
6. Allow for spontaneous and planned occasions of worship during educational
events.
7. Inquire about the spiritual growth of persons in your programs.
Psalm 78
Psalm 78:1–8 is another key Old Testament passage providing insights for
understanding the setting for covenant education. This passage speaks about
the attention given to God’s activities in history on behalf of God’s creation
and the redeemed community:
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
30 Foundational Issues in Christian Education
O my people, hear my teaching;
listen to the words of my mouth.
I will open my mouth in parables,
I will utter hidden things, things from of old—
what we have heard and known,
what our fathers have told us.
We will not hide them from their children;
we will tell the next generation
the praiseworthy deeds of the Lord,
his power, and the wonders he has done.
He decreed statutes for Jacob
and established the law in Israel,
which he commanded our forefathers
to teach their children,
so the next generation would know them,
even the children yet to be born,
and they in turn would tell their children.
Then they would put their trust in God
and would not forget his deeds
but would keep his commands.
They would not be like their forefathers—
a stubborn and rebellious generation,
whose hearts were not loyal to God,
whose spirits were not faithful to him.
Wherever God’s words and deeds are passed on to succeeding generations,
a context for Christian education is formed. By necessity, intergenerational
relationships must be present for this to occur. Both the Old and the New
Testament communities have a shared memory or history. In rehearsing the
accounts of God’s activities in both distant and recent history, the meaning
and purpose of life in God are shared. Followers of the living God are not
to forget but rather should learn from the victories and failures of persons
in the past. God’s community is called to reflect on God’s covenant and the
responses of persons, groups, and communities that have resulted in both
blessing and curse. Where this reflection and dialogue are facilitated is the
place where the covenant can be renewed. Reflection depends on a faithful
recounting of history, which emphasizes the need to explore historical
foundations.
In Old Testament times, the family was the primary setting for education.
The efforts of the family were supplemented and complemented by the instruction
in the covenant community as it gathered. In exilic and postexilic
times, the agencies of education expanded to include both synagogues and
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
Biblical Foundations 31
schools.18 Even with these developments, the extended family continued to be
important in education.
In the New Testament, the church functions as the extended and adopted
family of God. It is the responsibility of those so gifted and experienced to
pass on to the next generation accounts of the acts, the power, and the wonders
of God in the past and present. Those who are gifted and experienced
have responsibilities as stewards to transmit this life-giving message to new
members of the faith community. This transmission is crucial if persons are
to gain a sense of rootedness and identity in relation to a faith community.
Constant diligence is necessary to sustain this faithful transmission that also
calls for interpretation.
Nehemiah 8:1–18
Following the return of the exiles from captivity, Ezra reads the Law to
the people (Neh. 8:1–18). Ezra’s ministry is an instrument for renewal in the
life of the community; those able to understand are assembled to hear God’s
Word.19 The hearing and heeding of God’s Word issues in the restoration of
life and worship. The uniquely educational aspect of this event is the Levites’
instruction of the people. They clarify the words of God so that the people
can understand. When the people clearly see the implications of biblical
teachings, they can then respond in ways that are pleasing to God. The tasks
of education include enabling others to come to an understanding of God,
divine revelation, and expectations for personal and corporate human life.
The responsibilities of the educators or teachers include: (1) proclamation,
that is, the reading, speaking, or sharing of God’s Word; (2) exposition, that
is, the translation and explanation or opening up of the meaning of God’s
Word; and (3) exhortation, that is, the suggestion of direct application and
response for those who hear.
The responsibilities of the hearers or students include the following:
(1) knowing God’s Word by listening attentively to its proclamation; (2) understanding
God’s Word by responding to its exposition; (3) obeying God’s Word
by responding wholeheartedly to its exhortation; and (4) worshiping God, who
is encountered through the proclaimed Word, and celebrating the restoration
realized in personal and corporate life.
18. For a full description of education in Old Testament times, see William Barclay, Train Up
a Child: Educational Ideals in the Ancient World (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1959), 11–48.
19. Cf. Romans 10:14–18; see also the discussion of Ezra and Nehemiah in Robert W. Pazmiño,
Latin American Journey: Insights for Christian Education in North America (Eugene, OR: Wipf
& Stock, 2002), 123–44.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
32 Foundational Issues in Christian Education
In general, hearers or students are expected to have reverence for God’s
Word (the people stand while Ezra reads the book of the Law) and to respond
at several levels, including one’s thoughts, decisions, and affections. A response
includes the intellect in terms of understanding, the will in terms of obedience,
and the emotions in terms of repentance and worship. A call is made
to set one’s mind, will, heart, and affections upon God. Here is an example
of education that goes beyond the immediate family situation to include the
whole community and nation.
Wisdom Literature
Crucial to understanding education from the perspective of the Old Testament
is the concept of wisdom and, in particular, its embodiment in Wisdom
literature. In the Hebrew worldview, wisdom was intensely practical, resulted
in successful living, and applied to the heart. A special group of persons was
endowed with the gift of wisdom and had the responsibility of sharing their
advice with others. Their task was to develop workable plans and to prescribe
advice for successful living (Jer. 18:18). But wisdom in its fullest sense was only
to be understood in relation to its source, namely, God.20 David H. Hubbard
provides helpful insights in his description of wisdom:
Wisdom in the fullest sense belongs to God alone (Job 12:13ff.; Isa. 31:2; Dan.
2:20–23). His wisdom is not only completeness of knowledge pervading every
realm of life (Job 10:4; 26:6; Prov. 5:21; 15:3) but also consists in his irresistible
fulfillment of what he has in mind (J. Pedersen, Israel: Its Life and Culture, I–II,
page 198). The universe (Prov. 3:19f.; 8:22–31; Jer. 10:12) and man (Job 10:8ff.;
Ps. 104:24; Prov. 14:31; 22:2) are products of his creative wisdom. Natural (Isa.
28:23–29) and historical (Isa. 31:2) processes are governed by his wisdom, which
includes an infallible discrimination between good and evil and is the basis for the
just rewards and punishments which are the lot of the righteous and the wicked
(Pss. 1, 37, 73; Prov. 10:3; 11:4; 12:2). Such wisdom is inscrutable (Job 28:12–21).
God in his grace must reveal it if man is going to grasp it at all (Job 28:23, 28).
Even wisdom derived from natural abilities or distilled from experience is a
gracious gift, because God’s creative activity makes such wisdom possible.
Biblical wisdom is both religious and practical. Stemming from the fear of
the Lord (Job 28:28; Ps. 111:10; Prov. 1:7; 9:10), it branches out to touch all of
life. . . . Wisdom takes insights gleaned from the knowledge of God’s ways and
applies them in the daily walk. This combination of insight and obedience (and
all insight must issue in obedience) relates wisdom to the prophetic emphasis
20. David H. Hubbard, “Wisdom,” in The New Bible Dictionary, ed. J. D. Douglas (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1962), 1333.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
Biblical Foundations 33
on the knowledge (i.e., the cordial love and obedience) of God (e.g., Hos. 2:20;
4:1, 6; 6:6; Jer. 4:22; 9:3, 6; and especially Prov. 9:10).21
What implications emerge from this Old Testament understanding of education?
First, God imparts wisdom, and people are dependent on this grace for
any claim to wisdom. Therefore, wisdom that is apart from or inconsistent
with the truths of God’s revelation must be suspect and questioned. Education
at its best must be God-centered, seeing God as the source. Educators are
called to integrate all areas of knowledge with God’s revelation.
A second implication is that education should have an impact on people’s
lives and should enable them to grapple with the practical consequences of
the truths studied or discerned. Therefore, the appeal to a strictly theoretical
or academic agenda that addresses the mind divorced from affections
and actions cannot claim to be faithful to the biblical tradition. Questions
of character, ethics, and lifestyle are appropriate, along with how truth and
commitment relate to all areas of life. Herein is the need for a holistic and
integrated perspective on education that affects the head, heart, and hands of
both teachers and students.
A third implication for education is that those who are identified as teachers
must be evaluated in terms of the extent to which they give evidence of having
received the gift of wisdom from God. Teachers are ultimately responsible to
God for the use of their gifts and responsible to students in sharing the fruit
of their insights. Approaches to education that exclusively emphasize studentdirected
learning may not provide adequate opportunities for a teacher’s wisdom
to be shared. The Wisdom literature affirms the need to contextualize
norms that can speak to people where they live.22
Prophetic Literature
The prophets are the social educators of their times who call the people, the
leaders, and the nations to account for their ways. They express the passion
of God for righteousness and justice in the land. Those within and outside
the faith community are scrutinized for the values they espouse and live out
in their lives. In response to the lack of faithful living, the prophets in their
teaching bring a message of hope, anger, and courage that the great North
African teacher Augustine described: “Hope has two lovely daughters, anger
21. Ibid.
22. For a discussion of wisdom in relation to education, see Peter C. Hodgson, God’s Wisdom:
Toward a Theology of Education (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1999); and Charles F.
Melchert, Wise Teaching: Biblical Wisdom and Educational Ministry (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity,
1998).
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
34 Foundational Issues in Christian Education
and courage. Anger at the way things are, and courage to see that they need
not remain as they are.”23 The prophets’ teachings provide hope for those
who are oppressed as they express God’s anger at human sin, as suggested by
Isaiah’s words: “The Sovereign Lord has given me an instructed tongue, to
know the word that sustains the weary. He wakens me morning by morning,
wakens my ear to listen like one being taught” (50:4). After listening to God,
the prophets teach with courageous words, declaring the alternatives to the
current situation.
As outlined by Ezekiel, the Levites have a distinctive role in teaching the
people the ways of the Lord: “They are to teach my people the difference between
the holy and the common and show them how to distinguish between the
unclean and the clean” (44:23). Whereas the Levites’ teaching may be primarily
applicable to personal, familial, and religious or cultic ethics, the prophets’
role is to set an agenda for the nation in the public sphere as well as the area of
social ethics. This is modeled in the message of Micah: “He has showed you,
O man, what is good. And what does the Lord require of you? To act justly
and to love mercy and to walk humbly with your God” (6:8). The works of
justice, righteousness, and mercy encompass all of life and include the social,
economic, and political spheres. The prophets speak of God’s values for all of
life that bring human efforts under judgment and disrupt everyday patterns.
God’s demands are made explicit in the teachings of the prophets, who pose
choices for all their hearers, their students in the public arena.
The prophetic tradition suggests the need for Christian educators to grapple
with the social, political, and economic implications of faith commitments.
The prophets were commentators in their time who took risks in clearly outlining
God’s demands. Prophetic teaching was not always welcomed, and a
silencing of the prophets was one response to their teaching. One important
consideration of the prophetic teacher in the present day is the manifestation
of love in confronting hearers, realizing that care is required to confront others
in their sinful and destructive ways.
The New Testament
The New Testament, as was the case with the Hebrew Scripture, or Old
Testament, provides a variety of insights regarding the tasks of teaching the
23. This quote, which may well be part of an oral tradition attributed to Augustine, is noted
by Wilbert J. McKeachie, Teaching Tips: Strategies, Research, and Theory for College and University
Teachers, 9th ed. (Lexington, MA: D. C. Heath & Co., 1994), 384. This work is one that
I wish I had read before teaching in higher education. It has many helpful suggestions.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
Biblical Foundations 35
faith. The Gospels and the Epistles set an agenda for the propagation of
the Christian faith in what often was an alien or hostile setting. Jesus as a
teacher had to contend with an unwelcome reception by many to what he
was proclaiming. The facts of his incarnation, the threat to his life in Bethlehem,
his rejection at Nazareth, and his crucifixion in Jerusalem all point
to the risks and costs of teaching the truth in his time. These experiences of
Jesus are explored in appendix A.24 Christians in the first two centuries had
similar challenges to their sharing the gospel. Much can be learned regarding
education from a careful study of several New Testament teaching patterns,
some of which are considered below. Kevin Giles points out in relation to
the New Testament that every leader of the faith community was a teacher.
Those leaders included apostles, prophets, bishops, deacons, elders, women,
church members, and even children who were brought within Jesus’s circle of
teaching. The vision was for everyone to be teachers.25 This was particularly
the case for Matthew’s Gospel, which served in many ways as both a teaching
manual and curriculum.
Matthew: Sharing Vision, Mission, and Memory
In the New Testament, the Old Testament patterns of education persist,
but the followers of Jesus are provided with a new agenda for their educational
efforts. This agenda is most explicit in Matthew 28:16–20. The purpose of
the disciples’ ministry is to enable other persons to become obedient disciples
of Jesus Christ. This teaching of responsibility is for all who are disciples of
Jesus. It is a difficult task to teach obedience. Those who have taught others
can appreciate this difficulty. Yet there is the promise that Christ’s very presence,
as well as his authority, will empower his disciples to disciple others,
be it in the home, the church, the classroom, or the wider community. The
purpose of making disciples is totally dependent on sharing the content of
Jesus’s own teachings, those truths revealed by God with direct implications
for life. The challenge posed for current efforts in Christian education is this
question: Are obedient disciples of Jesus Christ being nurtured and taught
all that Jesus taught? If so, there is a basis for affirmation and continued reliance
on God’s gracious undertaking. If not, there is a challenge for careful
evaluation and renewed efforts.
24. See also the forthcoming work: Robert W. Pazmiño, So What Makes Our Teaching Christian?
Teaching in the Name, Spirit, and Power of Jesus (2008). This book explores insights from
Jesus’s teaching in the Gospel of John particularly with Nicodemus and the Samaritan woman
known as Photini and the apostles’ teaching in the book of Acts.
25. Kevin Giles, Patterns of Ministry among the First Christians (Melbourne, Australia:
Collins Dove, 1989), 114–18.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
36 Foundational Issues in Christian Education
In addition to this educational commission, the pattern of instruction in
Matthew’s Gospel shows how teaching was conducted in the early church.
Matthew’s Gospel is a teaching manual for discipling Christians. Jesus’s teaching
is organized into blocks of instruction that provide a curricular guide for
the emerging Christian church. The five major teaching sections of instruction
include the following: 5:1–7:27; 10:1–42; 13:1–52; 18:1–35; 23:1–25:46. These
sections address major areas of Christian life.26 They can be categorized in
terms of three elements that a Christian community shares with its members,
namely, a vision, a mission, and a memory.
The first teaching section is the Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5:1–7:27).
This passage contains Jesus’s teaching on the personal and social ethics of the
kingdom. It provides a vision for participation in God’s kingdom.
Matthew 10:1–42 records Jesus’s charge to the twelve disciples, outlining
his teaching on mission. Jesus sends out his disciples as an extension of his
own ministry with specific directives to guide their ministries.
The third teaching section (Matt. 13:1–52) includes the parables of the
kingdom, in which Jesus teaches about redemptive history and provides
insights for discerning the nature of the kingdom itself. The kingdom has
small beginnings but grows in the midst of an evil world. This history of the
kingdom provides a framework for understanding past, current, and future
developments in the mission of the kingdom.
Matthew 18:1–35 contains Jesus’s discourse on church discipline, in which
he describes the nature of his disciples’ commitments to one another in love
and truth. This passage addresses the area of mission as related to a local body
of disciples who are called to model a community of love, healing, reconciliation,
and justice.
The final teaching section (Matt. 23:1–25:46) contains Jesus’s teaching on
eschatology. The happenings at the end of the present age with the inbreaking
of the coming age of God’s kingdom fulfilled on earth are described. Thus
the focus is again on vision.
The New Testament model for Christian teaching, then, centers on the
shared Christian vision, mission, and memory, as the followers of Jesus
Christ seek to be faithful to God’s calling in the world.
In relation to current educational efforts, Christians are called to evaluate
the extent to which the Christian vision, the Christian mission, and the
Christian memory are effectively shared. Such criteria provide standards for
evaluating Christian education today. As was illustrated with Deuteronomy
26. Glenn W. Barker, William L. Lane, and J. Ramsey Michaels, The New Testament Speaks
(New York: Harper & Row, 1969), 264–66.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
Biblical Foundations 37
30–32, possible educational implications can be suggested for local church educational
efforts based on the consideration of Matthew’s teaching model.
From the first element of education—sharing vision—the following implications
for Christian educators can be identified:
1. Explicitly state, preferably in written form, their vision for God’s work
in their specific locality.
2. Provide an extended period of time, perhaps in a retreat format, when
persons involved in educational ministries can study biblical insights
for education and can share their vision for ministry.
3. Periodically devote time to evaluate the implementation of a vision for
a specific ministry and to reorient efforts.
From the second element of education—sharing mission—the following
implications for Christian educators can be suggested:
1. Develop a statement of mission to guide educational work that identifies
specific purposes and goals for long- and short-term periods.
2. Consider needs both within and outside of the immediate Christian
community and biblical demands in considering mission. (Challenges
in home and foreign missions cannot be neglected in focusing on local
concerns.)
3. Delegate specific responsibilities and establish avenues of accountability
for various components of mission implementation.
4. Evaluate existing programs and efforts in terms of an agreed-upon
mission statement.
5. Periodically reconsider the mission statement in light of new challenges
and changing situations.
The third element of education—sharing memory—suggests the following
implications for Christian educators:
1. Plan times when the history of God’s work in a particular local church
community and/or denomination can be recounted and celebrated.
2. Relate local history to the advance of God’s kingdom over the centuries.
3. Identify specific points of continuity and discontinuity with the past in
relation to the present and future of the local church.
4. Include children, youth, and adults in exploring historical roots.
These implications are suggestive and serve to illustrate the value of exploring
foundations for the actual practice of education in the setting of the local
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
38 Foundational Issues in Christian Education
church. Various other factors must be considered, but biblical models can be
reappropriated and reinterpreted to provide helpful frameworks in which to
conceptualize and practice Christian education. This approach is an alternative
to the uncritical appropriation of dominant models current in society, which
nevertheless can be considered for secondary insights.
Luke: Methods from the Master Teacher
Another passage of particular significance for a discussion of education,
and of methods in particular, is Luke 24:13–35, in which Jesus talks with two
disciples on the road to Emmaus.
Now that same day two of them were going to a village called Emmaus, about
seven miles from Jerusalem. They were talking with each other about everything
that had happened. As they talked and discussed these things with each
other, Jesus himself came up and walked along with them; but they were kept
from recognizing him.
He asked them, “What are you discussing together as you walk along?”
They stood still, their faces downcast. One of them, named Cleopas, asked
him, “Are you only a visitor to Jerusalem and do not know the things that have
happened there in these days?”
“What things?” he asked.
“About Jesus of Nazareth,” they replied. “He was a prophet, powerful in
word and deed before God and all the people. The chief priests and our rulers
handed him over to be sentenced to death, and they crucified him; but we had
hoped that he was the one who was going to redeem Israel. And what is more,
it is the third day since all this took place. In addition, some of our women
amazed us. They went to the tomb early this morning but didn’t find his body.
They came and told us that they had seen a vision of angels, who said he was
alive. Then some of our companions went to the tomb and found it just as the
women had said, but him they did not see.”
He said to them, “How foolish you are, and how slow of heart to believe all
that the prophets have spoken! Did not the Christ have to suffer these things
and then enter his glory?” And beginning with Moses and all the Prophets, he
explained to them what was said in all the Scriptures concerning himself.
As they approached the village to which they were going, Jesus acted as if he
were going farther. But they urged him strongly, “Stay with us, for it is nearly
evening; the day is almost over.” So he went in to stay with them.
When he was at the table with them, he took bread, gave thanks, broke it
and began to give it to them. Then their eyes were opened and they recognized
him, and he disappeared from their sight. They asked each other, “Were not
our hearts burning within us while he talked with us on the road and opened
the Scriptures to us?”
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
Biblical Foundations 39
They got up and returned at once to Jerusalem. There they found the Eleven
and those with them, assembled together and saying, “It is true! The Lord has
risen and has appeared to Simon.” Then the two told what had happened on the
way, and how Jesus was recognized by them when he broke the bread.
Key components of this teaching episode for consideration are discussion
(v. 14), open inquiry (v. 17), correction and clarification (vv. 25–27), role
modeling (vv. 30–31), and the need for response (vv. 33–35). Whereas this
educational encounter includes the dimension of declaration as evidenced in
Jesus’s exposition of the Scriptures, it also includes the dimension of dialogue,
which enables the disciples to be engaged not only at the level of their minds
but also includes their affections, wills, and actions. Here is an educational
encounter that calls for a head, heart, and hand response to the good news
declared by Jesus.
Jesus’s approach in interacting with these disciples includes three noteworthy
elements. First, Jesus asks them questions (vv. 17–19). The Master Teacher
knows the answers, yet he wants his students to think for themselves. Second,
Jesus listens. He hears their response to the questions he asks. Teachers often
fail to listen to students and to allow adequate time for thought. Third, it is
only after questioning and listening that Jesus both exhorts these disciples
and opens the Scriptures, explaining their meaning. Jesus explains the truths
discussed by Moses and the Prophets through his interpretation of the texts.
In response to Jesus’s teaching, these disciples describe their encounter as one
in which both their eyes and the Scriptures were opened. The word for “open”
here is the same word used to describe how a womb is opened at the birth of
a child. There is a sense of joy and the burning of the heart that parallels a
birth experience in terms of its personal impact. The joy associated with such
a disclosure is a desperately needed dimension in each and every Christian
education endeavor.
In addition to this account of Jesus’s teaching, the Gospels provide examples
of the wide variety of methods that Jesus used in his teaching ministry.27 James
Stewart identifies some general principles and particular features of Jesus’s
methodology. The general principles are: Jesus’s teaching was authoritative;
Jesus trusted in the power of truth to convince his hearers; Jesus sought to have
persons think for themselves; Jesus lived what he taught; and Jesus loved those
he taught. The particular features are: Jesus’s teaching was oral instruction; it
27. Robert H. Stein, The Method and Message of Jesus’ Teachings (Philadelphia: Westminster,
1978), provides a helpful categorization of the forms of Jesus’s teaching. He points out
that three important considerations in teaching include what is taught, who the teacher is, and
how the teacher teaches.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
40 Foundational Issues in Christian Education
was occasional in nature; it was elicited by quite casual events; it was adapted
to his audience; and it included figurative elements such as illustrations, epigrams,
paradoxes, and parables.28 Christian educators are not limited to the
oral instruction that Jesus employed but have access to a wide variety of media
and methodologies. Nevertheless, the example of Jesus as the Master Teacher
must be studied if one is to effectively and faithfully minister. In this study one
must recognize the unique role and mission of Jesus’s teaching.
1 Corinthians 2:6–16: Wisdom from the Holy Spirit
Christian educators must consider the extensive teaching ministry of Paul in
the first century. Paul’s focus is wisdom from God, a wisdom whose source is
the Holy Spirit. Paul teaches in words taught by the Spirit, expressing spiritual
truths in spiritual words. The reception of these words also requires the work
of the Holy Spirit in the lives of the hearers. A person without the Spirit does
not accept the things that come from the Spirit. Paul reflects the words of Jesus
to his disciples: “But the Counselor, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will
send in my name, will teach you all things and will remind you of everything
I have said to you” (John 14:26); “But when he, the Spirit of truth, comes,
he will guide you into all truth. He will not speak on his own; he will speak
only what he hears, and he will tell you what is yet to come” (John 16:13).
The Holy Spirit, whose responsibility is to teach the disciples of Christ all
things and remind them of Jesus’s teachings, equips the Christian teacher to
effectively minister and releases the creativity necessary to appropriately share
and understand Christian truths.
Effective teaching and learning require the continuing presence and work of
the Holy Spirit. Teaching itself is described as one of the gifts bestowed on the
church by Christ through the Holy Spirit (Rom. 12:3–8; 1 Cor. 12:27–31; Eph.
4:7–13; 1 Pet. 4:10–11). Teaching is not only a Spirit-endowed and motivated
gift but also requires that the teacher be continually filled and guided by the
Holy Spirit in the process of teaching (Eph. 4:29–32; 5:15–20). The spiritual
dimensions of education are foundational in a New Testament perspective.
The wisdom from the Holy Spirit contrasts with the knowledge or wisdom
from the world. This distinction is also explicit in James 3:13–18. In 1 Corinthians,
Paul describes “a wisdom of this age” (2:6) and a knowledge that puffs
up (8:1–3). In comparison, spiritual knowledge and wisdom are characterized
28. James D. Stewart, The Life and Teaching of Jesus Christ (Nashville: Abingdon, n.d.),
64–71. For a detailed exploration of these dimensions of Jesus’s teaching, see Pazmiño, Principles
and Practices of Christian Education: An Evangelical Perspective (1992; Eugene, OR: Wipf &
Stock, 2002), 124–32.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
Biblical Foundations 41
by a love that builds up or edifies. Knowledge easily breeds conceit, provides
glib answers, and at best is incomplete. What matters more is spiritual wisdom
expressed in a love that promotes the good of others and glorifies God. Paul
prays that the Ephesians might know the love of Christ that surpasses knowledge
(3:19). Paul does not denounce knowledge but sees it being transcended
through the work of the Holy Spirit, making the love of Christ a reality.
From the experience of teaching a group of twelve to fifteen active fifth- and
sixth-grade boys in East Harlem, New York City, the author can testify to the
essential dimension of love shared both within and outside the classroom. Beyond
any knowledge shared in the lessons, students have commented over the
years on the glimpses of God’s love seen during Saturday outings and service
projects that extended scriptural lessons into everyday life.
Ephesians: Pattern and Purposes
A general pattern of Paul’s ministry as reflected in the book of Ephesians,
but also in his other writings, is one that incorporates instruction, intercession,
and exhortation.29 Instruction consists of a focus on the content of Christian
faith, on what God has done. Intercession is prayer for those instructed, with
a conscious dependence on God and the work of the Holy Spirit. The third
element of the pattern is exhortation. Paul specifies what believers are to be
and do in light of God’s activities and revelation in Christ.
In addition to this general pattern, Ephesians 4:7–16 provides specific
insights for discerning the purposes of the teaching or educational ministries
of the church. Teaching is a spiritual gift. The immediate purpose of teaching
is the preparation of God’s people for works of service within the church
and the world. A truth of particular significance for the Christian church in
the twenty-first century is the ministry of all believers. The sixteenth-century
church affirmed the priesthood, and in some cases the prophethood, of all
believers, which is now being understood in terms of a ministry that each
believer possesses. All of God’s people must be equipped, taught, and trained
for their varied ministries, making use of the gifts God has bestowed on a
covenant people.
Beyond this immediate purpose of preparation for works of service, there
is an ultimate purpose for teaching, for educating. This ultimate purpose is
29. John Stott, God’s New Society: The Message of Ephesians (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity,
1979), 146. See also Roy B. Zuck, Teaching as Paul Teaches (Grand Rapids: Baker,
1998); Richard R. Osmer, The Teaching Ministry of Congregations (Louisville: Westminster
John Knox, 2005), 3–56; for my discussion of Paul as teacher, see “Teachings of Paul,” in
Evangelical Dictionary of Christian Education, ed. Michael J. Anthony (Grand Rapids: Baker
Academic, 2001), 686–88.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
42 Foundational Issues in Christian Education
the edification of the church. The gift of teaching is given so that the body
of Christ, the church, might be built up. Whereas sanctification generally
centers on the personal spiritual growth of an individual, edification centers
on corporate spiritual growth that is by necessity mutual, collaborative, and
cooperative. The church is Christ’s body, and his headship and lordship are
essential if edification is to occur. This edification occurs in the areas of unity
and maturity. Unity is a unity in the faith and knowledge of the Son of God,
and it is a unity in the truth. Maturity takes place in terms of the whole measure
of the fullness of Christ. The church grows into this maturity by truth
and love. Speaking the truth in love involves maintaining, living, and doing
the truth within relationships of love.
Edification requires the corresponding work of sanctification; both processes
are mutually supportive. Thus the purposes of education must include both
corporate and personal dimensions of growth in the Christian faith. Also,
the immediate purpose of preparation for service must be seen in relation
to the ultimate purpose of edification. It is through the actual opportunities
for service that the body of Christ is built up. Therefore, education in
the Christian faith that does not issue in service can be questioned as being
inadequate in the same way that the book of James questions a faith devoid
of deeds (James 2:14–26).
Colossians and Philippians: Wisdom in Christ
In Colossians 1:9–14 Paul prays that God will fill the Colossian Christians
with knowledge of God’s will through all spiritual wisdom and understanding.
He prays this so that these Christians might live their lives worthy of the Lord,
pleasing God in every way. Paul specifies ways in which this worthiness might
be expressed: bearing fruit in every good work, growing in the knowledge of
God, being strengthened with all power according to God’s glorious might,
and joyfully giving thanks to God. In other words, service, spiritual growth
and empowerment, and worship are evidences of the application of Christian
knowledge and wisdom to life.
In this epistle Paul goes on to emphasize the supremacy of Christ in creation
and his centrality in the experience of Christians. It is in Christ that
Christians have redemption, the forgiveness of sins (1:14). It is in Christ that
Christians must center their education. Paul describes his purpose in ministering
that fellow believers “may have the full riches of complete understanding,
in order that they may know the mystery of God, namely, Christ, in whom
are hidden all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge” (2:2–3). It is in Christ
that integration and wholeness in education can be found because in him
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
Biblical Foundations 43
are all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge. Reality itself is found in him
(2:17). Paul warns of hollow and deceptive philosophy, which depends on
human tradition and the basic principles of this world, rather than on Christ
(2:8). It is essential that the christocentric character of Christian education
be recognized and affirmed at its roots. Christ himself is at the center of all
life from a Christian world and life view.
In relation to the centrality of Christ and the treasures of wisdom and
knowledge in him, Christians are called to a rigorous task in the area of
education. This task is suggested in Paul’s exhortations to the Christians at
Philippi. In Philippians 4:8–9, Paul shares a vast agenda for Christian educators
at all levels of society:
Finally, brothers, whatever is true, whatever is noble, whatever is right, whatever
is pure, whatever is lovely, whatever is admirable—if anything is excellent or
praiseworthy—think about such things. Whatever you have learned or received
or heard from me, or seen in me—put it into practice. And the God of peace
will be with you.
This is an agenda encompassing all the areas of human intellectual endeavor
and study. In relation to these areas, Christians are to think about such things
and take such things into account. They are to allow such valuable knowledge to
shape their attitudes and lives. But the obligation does not end with mere thought
or reflection. Whatever these Philippian Christians had learned, received, or
heard from Paul, or had seen in him, was to be put into practice. Thought
without practice is incomplete. It is also helpful to note that Paul’s influence
was not only direct and intentional through what was learned, received, and
heard; it was also unintentional and indirect. Paul himself served as a model so
that what was seen in his life was also taught. This is the dimension of teaching
that is more caught than taught through relationships with students.
John: Supremacy of Relationships
While emphasizing wisdom and knowledge, Christian educators must also
be aware of the dimension of interpersonal relationships addressed in the New
Testament. Christian education centers on relationships with the Triune God,
with other persons, and with all of creation. Various Scriptures could be cited
that deal with the relationships among persons as they are to be patterned after
the foundational relationship with God. One passage of particular significance
is John 15:12–17, which presents Jesus’s new commandment to love others as he
himself has loved his disciples. Jesus modeled this love in how he taught both
Nicodemus and the Samaritan woman in his encounters with them as recorded
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
44 Foundational Issues in Christian Education
in the Gospel of John. This commandment to love is overwhelming and yet
foundational for all interpersonal interactions in Christian education.
Also of significance is the nature of Jesus’s relationship, as the Master Teacher,
with his disciples, his students. Jesus shared his very life by laying it down for
his disciples. They were viewed not just as servants but more significantly as
friends. Wherever possible, teachers are called upon to foster friendships with
students and to give of themselves sacrificially following the model of Jesus.
Sacrificial giving can include such efforts as being available both before and after
scheduled teaching times for interaction and active listening with students.
Paul describes his relationship to his Thessalonian disciples as one that
includes both maternal and paternal dimensions (1 Thess. 2:7–12). In verse 8,
Paul says that the ministers and teachers were delighted to share not only the
gospel of God but their lives as well.30 The maternal dimension included caring
and nurturing, while the paternal dimension included encouraging, comforting,
and urging others to live lives worthy of God. The challenge is for Christian
teachers to be open to this level of servanthood, which places the teacher in
a position of risk and vulnerability in loving and interacting with students.
This interaction requires the sharing of one’s very life and the willingness to
serve as an example in guiding others. Being an example means not that the
teacher is a complete and sinless person, but rather that he or she, like other
persons, is in need of forgiveness and yet still seeks to be faithful.
Complementing the focus on love in relationships is the dimension of truth.
Ephesians 4:15, 1 Peter 1:22, and 2 John 1 link the virtues of love and truth in
encouraging Christians to speak or maintain the truth in love or to love in truth.
There must be a standard of truth. For the Christian educator, this is provided
in the Scriptures and consummately in the person of Jesus Christ. There is the
assurance that all truth, wherever discerned, is God’s truth, for God alone is its
source. Truth without love results in harshness, and love without truth results in
compromise. The Christian gospel maintains both of these virtues together in a
creative complementarity.31 It is a constant challenge in every educational setting
to balance both love and truth through one’s teaching. These themes are explored
in the appendices of this third edition in relation to postmodernism.
An additional responsibility for teachers is suggested by the admonition
issued in 2 Timothy 2:2. Teachers are called to duplicate their efforts through
the teaching ministries of their students (Luke 6:40). Persons who are taught
are to be prepared and equipped to teach others. Thus the Christian teacher
30. See also 1 Timothy 4:16.
31. See Thom Hopler, A World of Difference: Following Christ beyond Our Cultural Walls
(Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1981), 185–95, for a helpful general discussion of these
themes.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
Biblical Foundations 45
is to be sensitive to opportunities to disciple others. To fulfill this obligation,
the Christian teacher depends on the work and presence of God the Creator,
Redeemer, and Sustainer.
Hebrews: A Question of Readiness
Hebrews 5:11–6:3 provides insights for the important question of readiness
prior to and during teaching interactions:
We have much to say about this, but it is hard to explain because you are slow to
learn. In fact, though by this time you ought to be teachers, you need someone
to teach you the elementary truths of God’s word all over again. You need milk,
not solid food! Anyone who lives on milk, being still an infant, is not acquainted
with the teaching about righteousness. But solid food is for the mature, who by
constant use have trained themselves to distinguish good from evil.
Therefore let us leave the elementary teachings about Christ and go on to maturity,
not laying again the foundation of repentance from acts that lead to death, and
of faith in God, instruction about baptisms, the laying on of hands, the resurrection
of the dead, and eternal judgment. And God permitting, we will do so.
The writer to the Hebrews warns against those who may fall away from
the faith and explains that some need to be retaught the elementary truths of
God’s Word. This is the case because they had not understood, accepted, or
exemplified these truths in their lives. These persons are slow to learn. Using
the metaphor of food, the writer notes that some persons need the milk of
elementary teaching because they cannot handle the solid food of teachings
for the mature. Other passages also describe various levels of maturity (1 Cor.
2:6–3:4; 9:19–23; Titus 2:1–15; 1 Pet. 5:1–7) that must be assessed and considered
in any teaching endeavor. Christian educators are called to exercise
discernment in adjusting their teaching to the spiritual, social, cultural, economic,
and political characteristics of their hearers in the effort to address
participants at appropriate levels of understanding and readiness.
The issue of adequately assessing the readiness of participants in Christian
education efforts is complex and can be overwhelming, given the many
variables that influence persons individually, corporately, and contextually. Yet
there is a resource person available to Christian educators for this task. That
person is the Holy Spirit. But in discussing the ministry of the Holy Spirit,
who assists Christian teachers in assessing the readiness of participants and
planning appropriately for it, teachers must realize that their readiness also
is an issue. Educators are reminded of the warning in James 3:1: “Not many
of you should presume to be teachers, my brothers, because you know that
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
46 Foundational Issues in Christian Education
we who teach will be judged more strictly.” Part of that judgment involves the
discernment that one in fact has the gift of teaching.32 Confirmation of that
gift involves active service and a genuine openness to the feedback of others
and to the improvement of one’s skills.
An Integrated Model
Based on the biblical foundations for Christian education, it is possible to
suggest a model to guide current thought and practice. Dr. E. V. Hill uses the
image of a softball or baseball diamond to suggest the tasks of the Christian
church.33 But moving beyond the confines of a baseball diamond, a network
or web of education can be proposed for the church’s tasks. These tasks have
direct implications for the purposes of Christian education (see fig. 2).
Education for/of
Service—Diakonia
(Love expressed
in the world)
Education for/of
Proclamation—
Kerygma
(Faith)
Education for/of Advocacy—
Propheteia
(Hope)
Figure 2
The Educational Tasks of the Church
Education for/of Community—
Koinonia
(Love expressed in the body)
Education for/of Worship—
Leitourgia
(Faith, hope, and love in community)
In this model, one base represents education for proclamation (kerygma), which
seeks to enable persons to consider their personal commitment to Jesus Christ.
The task of proclamation involves teaching and preaching the gospel along
32. For a discussion of the gift of teaching, see Pazmiño, By What Authority Do We Teach?
59–76.
33. Edward V. Hill, “A Congregation’s Response” (lecture presented at Gordon-Conwell
Theological Seminary, South Hamilton, MA, January 21, 1976).
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
Biblical Foundations 47
with the ministry of evangelism. By necessity this purpose includes sharing the
basic content of the Christian faith. It also includes teaching about the need
for personal response, about the need to make a decision regarding the new
life offered in Jesus Christ. Persons are not educated into God’s kingdom, but
educational ministries are opportunities for them to explore the dimensions
of faith in response to the gospel. The Christian virtue most closely, but not
exclusively, associated with this emphasis in Christian education is faith.34
Faith can be viewed as including the dimensions of notitia (intellectual affirmation),
assensus (affective affirmation), and fiducia (intentional affirmation)
as persons respond to God’s activities and revelation in Jesus Christ. Education
for proclamation or evangelism focuses on enabling persons to explore and
grapple with these dimensions of faith and encouraging their response. This
response includes one’s initial personal response and then efforts to share the
Christian faith with others. The proclamation of the kerygma is crucial in
this process (Rom. 10:17), with educational encounters providing for dialogue
on the issues of faith in addition to the proclamation of the gospel. This base
centers on faith, which is most often related to the temporal dimension of the
past with an assurance based upon Christ’s completed work in history.
In addition to education for proclamation with its explicit and active emphasis
on the kerygma, this base also represents the education of proclamation. The
education of proclamation denotes a more receptive and implicit teaching and
learning that occurs through the witness of the Christian faith in word and
deed. Education for proclamation includes encouraging the response of non-
Christians to the claims of Christ and training Christians for their witness in
various settings. Education of proclamation includes the nonformal and informal
learning that occurs when Christians personally and corporately acknowledge
their commitments to Christ and the implications of such commitments before
the world in various ways. For example, a local church’s advocacy and/or
outreach to single parents and their participation in church life, or a church’s
commitment to honesty and integrity in its economic and political life can be
a proclamation of the gospel.
A second base represents education for community (koinonia)—fellowship
with God and with other Christians. It includes the processes of training,
instruction, and nurture, which enable persons to grow and mature in their
faith.35 Maturation and growth, given the nature of Christian community and
34. Christian virtues or values become important in Christian education because who and
what persons are and are becoming in Christ are central concerns. See, for example, 1 Timothy
4:12–16.
35. Training can be defined as education that deals with predictable, replicable situations.
Training is a conserving element of education that emphasizes continuities with the past and the
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
48 Foundational Issues in Christian Education
fellowship, include not only personal sanctification but also corporate or mutual
edification. For the purpose of analysis, it is possible to distinguish training,
instruction, and nurture, and to include both personal and corporate dimensions.
In actuality, however, these various elements should complement one
another and foster an integration of biblical content and personal experience,
of faith and life. Education for community involves the quest for sameness or
what persons hold in common with others. One responsibility of both pastoral
and lay leadership is to explore areas of sameness that help to form a sense
of corporate identity or community. The sameness sought does not deny the
realities of difference and the place of distinct individuals in the community.
The Christian virtue most closely but, again, not exclusively associated with
education for community is that of love as it is expressed within the body for
others. Love as a virtue relates most closely to the temporal dimension of the
present, with a focus on maximizing the potential of each current situation
and interaction.
Paralleling the active and receptive models of the first base described, this
second base can also be seen as encompassing two facets. The education of
community includes the knowledge and implied insights and values that are
communicated through the shared life of the faith community itself as it reflects
its fellowship with God. For example, church dinners that seek to include
everybody and perhaps share dishes of various ethnic, cultural, and racial
groups communicate and teach values and attitudes beyond formal training
and instruction. Lessons more caught than taught comprise the elements of
education of community, and each faith community, group, family, or school
must ask itself what in fact is being nurtured during time spent together.
A third base represents education for service (diakonia)—service to God,
to other persons, and to the world. Christian educators are called to equip
Christians for the task of service within the local church and the task of
incarnating their faith in life through efforts and actions. In terms of the
wider society, Christians are called in an incarnated ministry to be vehicles for
Christ’s transforming power, which can be effective at several different levels.
Christians are called to be salt and light in various organizations and institutions,
to work for justice and righteousness in various economic, political,
social, educational, and ecclesiastical structures. The church order outlined in
passing on of an unchanging heritage. Instruction can be defined as education that deals with
unpredictable situations. Instruction is a transforming element of education that emphasizes
renewal and change in response to changing situations in society and a consideration of the discontinuities
with the past. It envisions new possibilities and calls for the personal and corporate
responses of Christians. Nurture involves love, nourishment, and spiritual direction. Nurture,
by its very nature, requires a vital and intimate relationship and interaction with others.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
Biblical Foundations 49
Ephesians 4:7–13 points up the need to work for the ministry of all believers,
with all serving and ministering in the contexts of their homes, workplaces,
communities, societies, and world.
Christ’s transforming power is also operative in the intentional and ideational
realms, where knowledge and meanings are produced and distributed.
A Christian world and life view is crucial for realizing meaning, purpose, and
integration in life, and the call is to bring every thought captive in obedience
to Christ (2 Cor. 10:5), recognizing that it is the Lord who gives wisdom and
that from his mouth come knowledge and understanding (Prov. 2:6).
This renewing power of Christ is also needed in the realm of culture, with
its various values, beliefs, and attitudes. Christ seeks to preserve, redeem, and
transform cultures. Christians need spiritual discernment in exploring how
the Christian faith interacts with surrounding cultures. The Christian virtue
most closely associated with this third base, as with the second base, is love.
But in this instance, love is primarily focused on the world and expressed in
deed and word through service. As with second base, the temporal focus is
on the present.
This third base includes a receptive mode to complement the active stance
of education for service. Actual deeds of service for various persons, groups,
and causes provide occasions when others can learn from the perspective of
both Christians and non-Christians. Christians, for example, can learn the
real human costs of certain political, social, and economic policies through
ministries with the poor and in the process be spiritually enriched through
contacts with disadvantaged Christians. On the other hand, non-Christians
can gain insights about the Christian faith from the sacrificial service of Christians
in the world as they serve as living epistles to the transforming power
of Jesus Christ.
The fourth base signifies education for advocacy (propheteia). Christians
are called to realize that their hope is in God and God’s reign in history. With
this perspective they are able to advocate those concerns that fulfill God’s
purposes in the world. Advocacy works for the restoration of hope in the
wider community and society. As noted in the discussion of the Old Testament’s
prophetic legacy, the great church teacher Augustine suggested that
“hope has two lovely daughters, anger and courage. Anger at the way things
are, and courage to see that they need not remain as they are.”36 Human
efforts in various areas of life and ministry must be evaluated in terms of
kingdom values. Outcomes must be evaluated in terms of God’s creative and
redemptive purposes for all humankind, which include concerns for justice,
36. This quote attributed to Augustine is cited in McKeachie, Teaching Tips, 384.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
50 Foundational Issues in Christian Education
peace, and righteousness throughout creation. God’s purpose is “to bring all
things in heaven and on earth together under one head, even Christ” (Eph.
1:10). All creation awaits the future glory that God will bring to fruition in
the completed adoption of God’s children and the redemption of their bodies
(Rom. 8:18–27). There will be a new heaven and a new earth that will be
the home of righteousness as God has promised (2 Pet. 3:13). John speaks of
God’s future in Revelation 21:1–5:
Then I saw a new heaven and a new earth, for the first heaven and the first earth
had passed away, and there was no longer any sea. I saw the Holy City, the new
Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from God, prepared as a bride beautifully
dressed for her husband. And I heard a loud voice from the throne saying,
“Now the dwelling of God is with men, and he will live with them. They will be
his people, and God himself will be with them and be their God. He will wipe
every tear from their eyes. There will be no more death or mourning or crying
or pain, for the old order of things has passed away.”
He who was seated on the throne said, “I am making everything new!” Then
he said, “Write this down, for these words are trustworthy and true.”
This perspective of God’s future kingdom negates neither an appreciation of
the past nor an active working in the present to cooperate with God’s purposes
within the church and within the world. Education for advocacy encourages
Christians to gain this perspective on the future and God’s purposes in addressing
current realities. Moses serves as a model advocate for his people in the
Old Testament. Moses worked for the political, economic, social, and spiritual
liberation of the people in Egypt. He sought their empowerment as a fulfillment
of God’s plan. In the New Testament, Jesus as the Second or New Moses
fulfills this role of advocacy and upon his departure from earth sends another
advocate, the Holy Spirit, to intercede on behalf of the people. In response to
such advocacy, Christians are to advocate for the persons and concerns that are
close to the heart of God. The Christian virtue logically associated with this
fourth base is hope, which envisions God’s future and human participation in
that future along with calling persons, communities, and societies to account
just as the prophets of old did. In commenting on the place of advocacy with
older adults, Arthur Becker identifies three aspects of advocacy: the correction
of injustice, the positive pursuit of justice, and the prevention of injustice.37
37. Arthur Becker, Ministry with Older Persons (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1986), 196, as cited
by Harriet Kerr Swenson, Visible and Vital: A Handbook for the Aging Congregation (New
York: Paulist Press, 1994), 108, 129.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
Biblical Foundations 51
These three aspects of advocacy are components of the prophetic calling of
God’s people.
The challenge inherent in the prophetic task of the church calls for risk
and vulnerability as modeled by the prophets of the Old Testament. To avoid
this risk is to neglect the ministry of reconciliation that is given to the church
(2 Cor. 5:16–21). The prophets of old assumed this task of calling peoples and
nations to account before God. Christians in each age are not to shrink from
such a demand. This requires that prophetic words be honored in corporate
life and that believers demonstrate a willingness to respond to the demands
of the gospel of Christ.
Education for/of advocacy includes both acculturation and disenculturation.
Acculturation is a process that affirms the place of a particular Christian culture
and involves becoming a responsible member of a community in which that
culture is affirmed. In contrast to acculturation, disenculturation is a process
that places the values of God’s kingdom above any given cultural expression
and community of the Christian faith. Both processes are interdependent and
necessary, for as Lesslie Newbigin has aptly observed, “the gospel provides the
stance from which all culture is to be evaluated; but the gospel . . . is always
embodied in some cultural form.”38
Education for advocacy can be seen as acculturation into the vision of
God’s future as embodied and expressed in a particular community with its
proximate purposes for God’s reign. Education of advocacy involves a receptive
stance that enables a critical consciousness of proximate purposes in light
of the ultimate purposes of God’s reign. A particular Christian community,
for example, may emphasize the need for its participants to use the most
updated media and technological resources to equip children and youth for
the challenges of influencing modern Western culture. This can be viewed as
an appropriate proximate purpose. But from the perspective of the kingdom
values of shalom for all and stewardship of global resources, the tremendous
outlay of capital to secure such media and technology may be questioned in
terms of ultimate purposes.
The emphasis that centers and integrates educational efforts at each of the
four bases is education for worship (leitourgia), located at the center of the
diamond network. In educational ministries, persons are to be encouraged to
see the sovereign God as Lord of all and therefore worthy of worship, honor,
glory, and praise. Education for worship encourages persons to celebrate the
presence of God in all areas of life and to respond with the sacrifice of their
38. Lesslie Newbigin, Foolishness to the Greeks: The Gospel and Western Culture (Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1986), 21.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
52 Foundational Issues in Christian Education
very lives (Rom. 12:1–2). Abraham Heschel is a religious educator who has
spoken directly to this need. Heschel observes that the Greeks learned in order
to comprehend, the modern person learns in order to use, but the Hebrews
learned in order to revere. Heschel reminds Christian educators of the need
to encourage students to revere, to sense wonder and awe in response to God
and to our multifaceted creation.39
A legitimate question can be raised as to why worship should be identified
as the hub in my proposed model.40 It is the worship, praise, and adoration of
God that unites persons with all creation.41 The potential for connection and
integration in Christian education is enhanced if we center on the worship and
adoration of God in a world that is struggling with increased fragmentation
and a corresponding loss of meaning in life. But Christian educators have not
adequately addressed education for worship. Instead, models of education
emphasizing production and efficiency have been perpetuated. Alternative
models based on biblical sources can provide the opportunities for persons
to reflect on the majesty and wonder of God and God’s workings. They can
tap the creative potential of persons that finds expression in praise of God.
The chief end and purpose of education, as of life, can thus be seen in terms
of the glorification and enjoyment of God. Archbishop William Temple has
said: “To worship is to quicken the conscience by the holiness of God, to feed
the mind with the truth of God, to purge the imagination by the beauty of
God, to open the heart to the love of God, to devote the will to the purpose
of God.”42 Christian education at its best enables persons to worship the one
true God in all of God’s fullness and grandeur.
In addition to education for worship, the education of worship must be noted.
Worship is active participation in the liturgy of the faith community, which attributes
honor, glory, praise, and worth to God. The word “liturgy” is derived
from the term leitourgia and emphasizes the need to connect education to the
liturgical life of faith communities. Active liturgical participation can result
in receptivity to new insights regarding God, self, others, or the world. Such
receptivity can include cognitive, aesthetic, emotional, intuitive, volitional, and
spiritual insights and bring a greater sense of wholeness and integration to life.
A fulfilling liturgical life can have an impact on all of life in liberating ways.
39. Abraham J. Heschel, Between God and Man: An Interpretation of Judaism from the Writings
of Abraham Heschel, ed. Fritz A. Rothschild (New York: Free Press, 1959), 35–54.
40. Debra Dean Murphy explores this question in Teaching That Transforms: Worship as
the Heart of Christian Education (Grand Rapids: Brazos, 2004).
41. “Escape into Africa,” in Whole People of God Adult Curriculum, December 31, 1995
(Inver Grove Heights, MN: Logos Productions, 1995), A 111–21.
42. William Temple, The Hope of a New World (London: Student Christian Movement
Press, 1941), 30.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
Biblical Foundations 53
Beyond the particulars of each base, educators must be aware of the interconnections
among the bases in order to form a network. The first base
of kerygma primarily emphasizes knowing, and its complement at the third
base of diakonia emphasizes doing. For effective educational ministry, both
knowing and doing of the faith must be addressed along this first axis. The
second basis of koinonia emphasizes feeling at one or being reconciled with
God, others, and all creation while being in the world. The complement of
this second base is the fourth base of propheteia, which stresses not so much
feeling at one as feeling distinct or being not of the world in relation to the
values of God’s kingdom. As with the first axis, understanding educational
ministry along this second axis requires balancing the Christian vocation
of being in but not of the world, balancing the reconciliation of the already
present blessings of God with the anticipation of the “not yet.” The fifth
and central base of leitourgia serves as the nexus of the two axes, where the
challenges of knowing, feeling, and doing are brought into perspective in
relation to discerning the eternal purposes of God and orienting all of life to
God’s glory and praise. It is on these bases that the educational ministry of
the Christian church is to be founded.
Conclusion
The biblical foundations for Christian education are multiple but can be
woven together to provide an impressive tapestry of ministry in the service
of Jesus Christ. The warp and woof of that tapestry are the efforts of the
sovereign Triune God and those of God’s adopted family who have been gifted
and equipped for educational ministry.
The perspective of Scripture provides the essential basis for educational
ministries. In their various efforts, Christian educators may well take to heart
Peter’s exhortation:
Each one should use whatever spiritual gift he has received to serve others,
faithfully administering God’s grace in its various forms. If anyone speaks,
he should do it as one speaking the very words of God. If anyone serves, he
should do it with the strength God provides, so that in all things God may be
praised through Jesus Christ. To him be the glory and the power for ever and
ever. Amen. (1 Pet. 4:10–11)
Table 2 summarizes some of the foundational passages and major insights
suggested in this chapter. Other portions of Scripture could be cited that provide
additional insights and potential models. These specific passages are noted
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
54 Foundational Issues in Christian Education
only to provide an initial basis for discussion and dialogue in grappling with
biblical foundations. In considering these foundations, Christian educators
must evaluate their theological commitments; doing so raises issues taken up
in the second chapter, which explores theological foundations.
Table 2
Biblical Foundations for Christian Education
Passage
Audience/
Focus Insight
Implication/
Question
Deut. 6:1–9 Family/parents God’s commands foster
loving obedience.
Formal and nonformal
instruction must be
deliberate.
Deut. 30:11–20 Nation A decision for life as offered
by God is crucial.
The priority of education
emphasizing personal response
must be seen.
Deut. 31:9–13 Faith community God’s Word must be
shared.
Focus on the Word of God
must include opportunities
for response.
Deut. 31:30–32:4 Nation Liberation and celebration
are purposes for
teaching.
Does our teaching empower
and issue in worship
and joy?
Ps. 78 Intergenerations The stories/accounts of
God must be passed on.
Intergenerational sharing
is indispensable.
Neh. 8:1–18 Nation Teachers must foster
understanding and
obedience.
A holistic response to
God’s Word can bring
personal and communal
renewal.
Wisdom
literature
Teaching
relationships
Wisdom must be shared. Biblical wisdom is
practical.
Prophetic
literature
Nation We are accountable to
God.
Lordship applies to all of
life.
Matthew Jesus’s disciples Jesus suggests a new educational
agenda.
Obedient disciples are
nurtured by sharing vision,
memory, and mission.
Luke 24:13–35 Disciples A teacher must be attentive
to students.
Dialogue and listening are
valuable for disclosure.
1 Cor. 2:6–16 Faith community Spiritual wisdom is
distinct.
How can one foster the
message and work of the
Holy Spirit in teaching?
Ephesians Church Equipping and training
for ministry is the purpose
of education.
Mutual edification requires
active commitment and
service.
Colossians/
Philippians
Christian
wisdom
We must use our minds
for Christ.
The pursuit of truth requires
diligence in thought
and practice.
John 15:12–17 Christian
relationships
Love and truth are both
needed.
Interpersonal relationships
require attention.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.
Biblical Foundations 55
Passage
Audience/
Focus Insight
Implication/
Question
1 Thess. 2:7–12 Discipling
relationships
Teachers share their life
and message in teaching.
Female and male dimensions
of nurture must be
affirmed.
Heb. 5:11–6:3 Teaching
relationships
A varied diet may be
necessary.
Consider readiness in
teaching.
Points to Ponder
• What additional biblical texts or passages might be added in exploring
biblical foundations for Christian education from your educational
experiences?
• How do Old and New Testament perspectives relate to and compare
with those identified in the appendices of this work as characterizing
postmodernism, and why?
• Walter Brueggemann notes components of the Old Testament canon to
guide education. What components of a New Testament canon could
be proposed to guide Christian education?
• Suggest additional models beyond the five-task model presented here and
discuss the strengths and weaknesses of any models to guide Christian
education using biblical foundations.
• Identify gaps and additional implications and questions for the biblical
foundations noted in table 2.
Robert W. Pazmiño,
Foundational Issues in Christian Education, 3rd ed.: An Introduction in Evangelical Perspective,
Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2008. Used by permission.